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INTERNATIONAL
LIBRARY of TECHNOLOGY

A SERIES OF TEXTBOOKS FOR PERSONS ENGAGED IN THE ENGINEERING

PROFESSIONS AND TRADES OR FOR THOSE WHO DESIRE

INFORMATION CONCERNING THEM. FULLY ILLUSTRATED

AND CONTAINING NUMEROUS PRACTICAL

EXAMPLES AND THEIR SOLUTIONS

ELEMENTS OF PEN-AND-INK RENDERING

RENDERING WITH PEN AND BRUSH

ELEMENTS OF WATER-COLOR RENDERING

RENDERING IN WATER COLOR

DRAWING FROM NATURE

DRAWING FROM CAST

ELEMENTS OF FIGURE DRAWING

DRAWING FROM THE FIGURE

SCRANTON:
INTERNATIONAL TEXTBOOK COMPANY

THE NEW YORK
PUBLIC 1

696357A

EN-OX AND

SHILDEN FOUNDATIONS
^_ 1

1934 L

Entered at Stationers' Hall, London.

Elements of Pen-and-ink Rendering: Copyright, 1903, by International Text-
book company. Entered at Stationers' Hall, London.

Rendering With Fen and Brush: Copyright, 1903. by International Textbook
Company. Entered at Stationers' Hall, London.

Elements of Water-Color Rendering: Copyright, 1904, by International Text-
hook Company. Kntered at Stationers' Hall, London.

Rendering in Water Color: Copyright, 1904. by International Textbook Com-
pany. Entered at Stationers' Hall, London.

Drawing From Nature: Copyright, 1903, by International Textbook Company.
Entered at Stationers' Hall, London.

Drawing From Cast: Copyright. 1903, by International Textbook Company.
Entered at Stationers' Hall, London.

Elements of Figure Drawing: Copyright, 1903, by International Textbook Com-
pany. Entered at Stationers' Hall, London.

Drawing From the Figure: Copyright, 1903, by International Textbook Com-
pany. Entered at Stationers' Hall, London.

Printed in the United States.

PREFACE

The International Library of Technology is the outgrowth
of a large and increasing demand that has arisen for the
Reference Libraries of the International Correspondence
Schools on the part of those who are not students of the
Schools. As the volumes composing this Library are all
printed from the same plates used in printing the Reference
Libraries above mentioned, a few words are necessary
regarding the scope and purpose of the instruction imparted
to the students of — and the class of students taught by —
these Schools, in order to afford a clear understanding of
their salient and unique features.

The only requirement for admission to any of the courses
offered by the International Correspondence Schools, is that
the applicant shall be able to read the English language and
to write it sufficiently well to make his written answers to
the questions asked him intelligible. Each course is com-
plete in itself, and no textbooks are required other than
those prepared by the Schools for the particular course
selected. The students themselves are from every class,
trade, and profession and from every country; they are,
almost without exception, busily engaged in some vocation,
and can spare but little time for study, and that usually
outside of their regular working hours. The information
desired is such as can be immediately applied in practice, so
that the student may be enabled to exchange his present
vocation for a more congenial one, or to rise to a higher level
in the one he now pursues. Furthermore, he wishes to
obtain a good working knowledge of the subjects treated in
the shortest time and in the most direct manner possible.

iii

iv PREFACE

In meeting these requirements, we have produced a set of
books that in many respects, and particularly in the general
plan followed, are absolutely unique. In the majority of
subjects treated the knowledge of mathematics required is
limited to the simplest principles of arithmetic and mensu-
ration, and in no case is any greater knowledge of mathe-
matics needed than the simplest elementary principles of
algebra, geometry, and trigonometry, with a thorough,
practical acquaintance with the use of the logarithmic table.
To effect this result, derivations of rules and formulas are
omitted, but thorough and complete instructions are given
regarding how, when, and under what circumstances any
particular rule, formula, or process should be applied; and
whenever possible one or more examples, such as would be
likely to arise in actual practice — together with their solu-
tions— are given to illustrate and explain its application.

In preparing these textbooks, it has been our constant
endeavor to view the matter from the student's standpoint,
and to try and anticipate everything that would cause him
trouble. The utmost pains have been taken to avoid and
correct any and all ambiguous expressions — both those due
to faulty rhetoric and those due to insufficiency of statement
or explanation. As the best way to make a statement,
explanation, or description clear is to give a picture or a
diagram in connection with it, illustrations have been used
almost without limit. The illustrations have in all cases
been adapted to the requirements of the text, and projec-
tions and sections or outline, partially shaded, or full-shaded
perspectives have been used, according to which will best
produce the desired results. Half-tones have been used
rather sparingly, except in those cases where the general
effect is desired rather than the actual details.

It is obvious that books prepared along the lines men-
tioned must not only be clear and concise beyond anything
heretofore attempted, but they must also possess unequaled
value for reference purposes. They not only give the maxi-
mum of information in a minimum space, but this infor-
mation is so ingeniously arranged and correlated, and the

PREFACE v

indexes are so full and complete, that it can at once be
made available to the reader. The numerous examples and
explanatory remarks, together with the absence of long
demonstrations and abstruse mathematical calculations, are
of great assistance in helping one to select the proper for-
mula, method, or process and in teaching him how and when
it should be used.

Four of the volumes composing this library are devoted
to the subject of architectural and decorative design. In
the present volume is treated the subject of drawing and
rendering all architectural, decorative, and illustrative draw-
ings, purely from the standpoint of securing artistic effect
and expression of idea, rather than from the representation
of the object according to mechanical proportions. Pen-
and-ink Rendering, as expressing light and shade values
by means of successive parallel or intersecting pen strokes,
is treated from the standpoint of various artists that have
made themselves prominent by their individual methods.
Water color and the theory of color harmonies and con-
trasts are set forth along the lines of instruction given in the
modern art schools. Drawing From Nature directs methods
of procedure for studying the representation of outdoor forms,
while Drawing From Cast and the Human Figure are corela-
tive subjects intended to train in the representation of indi-
viduals amid pictorial surroundings.

The method of numbering the pages, cuts, articles, etc.
is such that each subject or part, when the subject is divided
into two or more parts, is complete in itself; hence, in order
to make the index intelligible, it was necessary to give each
subject or part a number. This number is placed at the top
of each page, on the headline, opposite the page number;
and to distinguish it from the page number it is preceded by
the printer's section mark (§). Consequently, a reference
such as S 16, page 26, will be readily found by looking along
the inside edges of the headlines until § 16 is found, and
then through *5 16 until page 26 is found.

International Textbook Company.

CONTENTS

Elements of Pen-and-Ink Rendering Section Page

Introduction 1 1

Values , . . . . 1 2

Composition 1 6

Balance, Rhythm, and Harmony ... 1 7

Textures 1 15

Examples of Work 1 17

Rendering With Pen and Brush

Introduction .... 2 1

Materials Used 2 1

Common Errors of Beginners .... 2 3

Plate Exercises 2 6

Preliminary Pen Practice 2 6

Introductory Exercises 2 12

Details and Accessories 2 17

Typical Subjects 2 34

Decorative Designs 2 40

Wash Drawings 2 45

Elements of Water-Color Rendering

Introduction 3 1

Primary Colors 3 5

Secondary and Tertiary Colors .... 3 6

Position of Colors in Chromatic Scale . . 3 6

Colors and Charts 3 8

Materials 3 8

Classification of Colors 3 9

Color Diagrams 3 12

Color Plate Exercises on Theory of Pig-
ments 3 17

iv CONTENTS

Rendering in Water Color Section Page

Introduction 4 1

Drawing Plates 4 6

Surface Texture . . . 4 6

Brush Work and Flowers 4 13

Drapery 4 19

Furniture 4 26

Interiors 4 34

Landscape 4 41

An Old Lime Kiln 4 52

Drawing From Nature

Introduction ... 5 1

Materials for Work 5 3

Training the Eye and the Hand . . 5 6

Importance of Gradation .... .5 12

Details of a Picture ........ 5 20

Foreground and Distance 5 20

Expression of Foliage 5 30

Accessories to Landscapes 5 61

Composition 5 80

Drawing From Cast

Introduction • 6 - 1

Measurement and Proportion 6 10

Making the Drawing 6 18

Geometrical Solids 6 21

Outlines of Features 6 31

Block Form of Head 6 37

Block Hand 6 51

Female Hand 6 56

Foot 6 61

Draped Figure 6 66

Elements of Figure Drawing

Introduction 7 1

Materials Used 7 4

Laying in the Figure 7 5

Foreshortening . . 7 8

CONTENTS v

Elements of Figure Drawing — Continued Section Page

Modeling 7 if)

Analytic Study of the Human Figure . . 7 12

The Figure 7 39

Features of the Face 7 56

Limitations to Movement 7 68

Drapery 7 70

Composition 7 80

Drawing From the Figure

Introduction 8 1

Plate I 8 2

Plate II 8 4

Plate III 8 6

Plate IV 8 7

Plate V 8 8

Plate VI 8 10

Plate VII 8 11

Plate VIII 8 12

Plate IX 8 13

Plate X 8 13

Plate XI 8 14

Plate XII 8 15

Plate XIII 8 15

Remarks 8 16

ELEMENTS OF PEN-AND-INK
RENDERING

INTRODUCTION

1. The term rendering applies to the treatment of a
drawing in light and shade. A landscape, a portrait, or a
perspective of a building may be drawn in outline, but to give
it full pictorial effect the lights and shades should be indicated
either by flat washes of color laid with a brush, or by a series
of closely placed lines drawn with a pen. The representa-
tion of light and shade by either method is termed the
rendering of the drawing, and is entirely independent of the
outlining of the drawing itself, although it is absolutely
necessary that the outline should first be drawn in pencil.

Light and shade tend to give the semblance of reality.
Objects in nature are seen as spots or masses of different
colors, differing also in degree of lightness or darkness. A
drawing may be rendered in color and shaded, or in color
only, as is done by the Japanese, or it may be rendered in
simple light and shade, a common method of which is with
pen and ink. This Section will treat of rendering in light
and shade only, both by means of pen and ink and by means
of the brush in monochrome; that is, a wash of one color.

The successful rendering of a drawing does not depend
solely on the mere ability to draw outlines. The eye and
hand may easily be trained to observe outlines and to depict
them on paper, but it requires a more careful observation to
judge of the relative amount of light and shade on each part,
especially as they always appear exaggerated when contrasted

For notice of copyright, see page immediately following the title page

ELEMENTS OF

§1

with one another; that is to say, a bright object will appear
brighter against a dark ground than it would if surrounded
with other bright objects. A deep shadow — such as the
interior of a doorway — will appear deeper and less trans-
parent if the outside of the building is in full sunshine. In
rendering a drawing one must study these phenomena, and
use the knowledge so gained in his work.

So, also, if two shades are contrasted, the lighter one will
appear lighter and the darker one will appear darker than is
really so. This happens with the drawing as well as in
nature, and while it is sometimes disturbing, it is more often
a serviceable means of producing desirable effects.

VALUES

2. The term value is employed by artists to express the

degree of light or shade. In rendering a drawing we employ

different values; that is to say, different degrees of light

and shade, as, for instance, black, gray (or half tone), and

Pig. 1

Fig. 2

white. These three values may be used to represent simple
light and shade, as in Fig. 1, where white and gray alone are
used, giving a drawing in two values. Values are also used
to express differences of color in the objects they represent,
as shown in Fig. 2. Both considerations enter into the

§1 PEN-AND-INK RENDERING 3

proper rendering of a drawing-, but the former alone is
occasionally all that is required, and there is great difference
of practice among artists as to the extent to which "color
values" should be employed.

The simple rendering of Fig. 1 indicates that the source
of light is behind the girl and to the left, thereby throwing
her shadow in front and to the right, shading her face and
the front portion of her dress. This two-value rendering
makes no attempt to show whether the dress is light colored
or dark colored, or whether the kerchief about her neck is of
the same or a different color from the dress. In Fig. 2,
however, the rendering shows clearly that the kerchief is
lighter in color than the dress, and that the dress is lighter
in color than the apron. The position of light is not indi-
cated, as the color values give sufficient interest.

As rendering consists of the expression or representation
of these values, it is obvious that a clear conception of them
is of the utmost importance. The student should make for
himself a scale of values, and practice on this scale fre-
quently in order to become familiar with it.

3. Scale of Values. — A scale of values is a gradation
from the deepest shadow to the brightest light; that is to
say, a representation of all the shades from black to white.
It is possible to make such a scale express so many values
between absolute blackness and absolute whiteness, that the
steps can scarcely be perceived; but for practical use in
pen-and-ink rendering three tones or values — black, half
tone, and white — will often be sufficient. This has been
shown in Fig. 2, where the apron and hair are expressed
in the darkest tone, the dress and water jar in the half
tone, and the face, kerchief, and stockings in the white of
the paper.

A scale of five values should also be practiced, however,
so as to give power to depict an object more fully than can
be done with three tones, but in pen-and-ink rendering a scale
of more than five values is difficult to use and seldom neces-
sary. These five values should first be rendered in a wash

ELEMENTS OF

§1

drawing with the brush, as shown in Fig. 3, where (a) is abso-
lute black, rendered with the full strength of the ink; (<•) is
perfectly white, being simply the color of the paper; (c) should

be midway in tone between
(a) and (<?), and (/>) should be
midway in tone between (<r)
and (c) , while (<■/) is midway
between (r) and (r) . This
gradation of tone should be
carefully practiced until the
eye is satisfied that none
of these middle tones leans
more to one of its next
neighbors than to the other;
that is to say, (b) should be
just as much darker than (c)
as (a) is darker than (/>).
Having secured these tones
in wash, they should be
drawn with pen and ink, as
shown in Fig. 4.

In pen drawing it is sel-
dom, if ever, advisable to
use an absolute black. A flat
black color, such as shown
at (a) in Fig. 3, is within the
province of brush work, but
pen drawing is essentially
line drawing, and even the
deepest black should not lose
this character. Therefore,
small specks of white show through it, giving it trans-
parency and characterizing it as pen work.

Fig. 4

4. In preparing this exercise, Fig. 4, five squares should
be drawn (about 1 inch each) and (a) rendered first as the
deepest tone. The tone marked (c) should then be rendered
by a series of moderately heavy lines, spaced about as

§1 PEN-AND-INK RENDERING 5

indicated, in order to give a tone which shall be about the
same as (' ) in Fig. 3. The tones (/>) and (d) can then be
rendered to correspond with (/>) and (<•/) in Fig. 3. Observe
that the darker tones are produced by making heavier
lines and spacing them close together, whereas the lighter
tone, as at (d) , is produced by making light lines and
leaving more space so that the white paper shows through
and tempers it. The half tone (c) is the key to the entire
scale, as it must be midway between (a) and (e) . Draw-
ings are usually rendered in such tones as (a), (c) , and
(e) first, after which the tones (/;) and (d) are introduced,
if necessary.

This practice of scales of values should be repeated fre-
quently on separate pieces of paper, both with the brush
and with the pen. The intermediate values (/>), (<"), and (d)
should always be made separately and then compared with
(a) and (c) or (e) and (e) , as the case may be, to see that
they are in equal contrast to the values between which they
are to be placed. Any inequalities should then be corrected
by making a new wash, and the experiment repeated until
the exact tone can be attained the first time. When the eye
moves easily and comfortably from one value to the next,
we have a rhythmic progression of values. This rhythmic
progression, or movement, by regular steps of value from
light to dark or from dark to light, is one of the most
important factors in the agreeable rendering of a drawing.

It is evident that the same value may be obtained either
by using fine lines set near together, or fewer or heavier
lines set farther apart. The amounts of black and white
will be the same in both cases, and the values identical,
but the effect will be different. This difference is called
difference of technique. It is analogous to the difference pro-
duced in cloths of the same color by different methods of
weaving. A coarser or finer technique in the shading is often
employed to represent different colors of the same value. A
difference of technique may be produced also by giving the
lines different directions, or by crossing them, which is
called hatching.

6 ELEMENTS OF §1

5. As said before, in the expression of a tone by means
of the pen the value is attained by the grouping of the lines.
The depth or darkness of the tone will depend on the
weight, or width of the lines, or the distance at which
they are placed from each other, as shown in Fig'. 4. In
other words, each line drawn is a black line, and the effect
of value results from the amount of white paper remaining
uncovered by the ink. The dark value may be produced by
a multitude of tine lines drawn closely together, and this is
almost invariably the tendency of the beginner. A much
better effect, however, results from a more economical
method of working, as that shown in Fig. 4 (a), where
the darkest value is composed of heavy lines closely spaced
and recrossing one another at an acute angle. Another
tendency of the beginner is to express the lighter values
with very thin, weak lines; this is not only bad practice, but
it renders the drawing difficult to reproduce as an illustra-
tion. All lines in a good pen drawing must be firmly ren-
dered, and each must be black and full width. Therefore,
a light value is best expressed with firm lines drawn a
good distance apart, as shown at Fig. 4 ((/).

It is well for the student to know that even experienced
artists find it necessary to practice these scales of tone
before they start to render a drawing. It takes some little
time to limber up the fingers so that the pen can be handled
smoothly and satisfactorily, and 15 minutes a day devoted
to this simple work will do more toward the training of the
hand than hours of practice in actually rendering an illustra-
tion. In like manner, the most renowned pianists have
to practice their scales every day.

COMPOSITION

<>. Com posit ion in a drawing is the grouping of the
various parts that make it a picture. Each important detail
must be grouped in such relation to every other detail as to
produce the most pleasing effect. An illustration or a draw-
ing in which the principal objects are scattered all over it,

§1 PEN-AND-INK RENDERING 7

is not interesting. They must be so grouped that the eye
either takes them all in at a glance and realizes that all
other objects in the picture are merely accessory, or they
must be grouped so that the eye travels naturally from one
to the other and easily comprehends their relations.

In sketching from nature or taking a photograph, one
must first choose a point of view and then decide just what
part and how much of the subject before him should be
included in the picture. In photographic work this is not
always an easy matter, and photographs taken for the pur
pose of illustration frequently require alteration or change
of composition by the artist.

In practical pen work, it frequently happens that the
draftsman receives a subject to render, in the form of a
photograph from nature or a perspective in outline of some
building. Here, so far as concerns effects of light and
shade, the matter of composition is left entirely with him,
and he must determine on the different values in which he
will render the different parts, and he must use his own
judgment for the introduction of such accessories as figures
and foliage that may be required. The success of his
rendered drawing will depend more on the skill he has
shown in this composition, than on his technique or skill in
the handling of the lines themselves.

BALANCE, RHYTHM, AND HARMONY

7. It is necessary to understand and keep before the
mind the fundamental principles of composition; i. e., to
notice and remember what arrangements are the most
agreeable. These principles apply not only to pictorial
representation, but to every kind of design. In general,
composition involves three separate considerations — balance,
rhythm, and harmony; and if work be executed in accord-
ance with these principles it will result in a unity of effect
that is satisfactory and restful, because all parts of the
picture are consistently related to one another. They should
be thoroughly understood and constantly remembered, for

8 ELEMENTS OF §1

they apply not only to pictorial representations but to every
kind of design.

8. Balance. — A composition in which the attention is too
much scattered lacks interest, and it should be so arranged
as to direct the eye toward the most important object. But
this object should not be too far from the middle of the
picture, or the composition will look ill-arranged and one-
sided. Hence, if the picture contains but a single object of
interest, it should be set somewhere near the middle, while
several objects of nearly equal importance should be put at
about equal distances from the center. Several objects of
various degrees of importance are naturally placed at dif-
ferent distances, accordingly.

In respect of light and shade the important thing is value.
In a composition of lights, white objects are of the most

1 OO lb. BO I b.

importance; in a composition of darks, black objects are of
the most importance. This is illustrated by the two principal
pictures in Mr. Abbey's paintings of the Holy Grail, in the
Boston Public Library. In one of them the white draperies
are concentrated at the middle of the picture, with the colored
costumes on either side, growing darker toward the edges.
In the other, the center of the canvas is occupied by a funeral
pall, and the colors grow brighter right and left.

Bui this is just the way in which, in mechanics, bodies of
different size and weight balance one another around their
center of gravity. The largest and heaviest are nearest to
it, the smaller and the lighter at greater distances accord-
ingly. Hence, a composition thus arranged is, by analogy,
said to be balanced.

Balance is a principle that every one understands as
a physical law. We all know that when a board is balanced
evenly over a sawhorse, as in a seesaw, its center must be

§1

PEN-AND-INK RENDERING

over the center of support. We also know that if a weight
be placed on one end of the board the balance can be main-
tained only by placing an equal
weight on the other end, as shown
in Fig. 5. A weight of 100
pounds placed half way between
the end of the board and the
point of support, can be balanced
by a weight of 50 pounds placed

(a)

on the extreme other end, as shown in Fig. 6. In Fig. 7 are
shown three rectangles, in the center of each of which is a
spot. These spots are of different shapes, but the balance is

maintained by their central location in the figure. In Fig. 8
are shown two spots similar to that shown in Fig. 7 (a).
They are the same size and shape and are spaced equidistant

II)

ELEMENTS OF

from the center; they therefore balance each other in the
composition. In Fig. 9 the spots are of different shapes,
but arc of equal value in light and shade; therefore, being
equidistant from the center, they balance. In Fig. 10 are
shown three spots, two of which are each half the size of
the third; these two, being together equal in value to the
third one, satisfactorily balance with it when spaced the same
distance from the center of the picture, as shown. It is
therefore evident that a close relationship exists between
the balancing of weights in mechanics and the balancing of
values in art.

i>. The balance of values in pen-and-ink drawing is thus
subject to laws similar to those governing the balance of
actual weights. The center of the paper on which our
picture is drawn corresponds to the center of gravity under
our weights, and by a few experiments in the placing of

unequal spots so that they will balance within a rectangle,
we can see the operation of these laws of composition.
In Fig. 1 1, the spot a is twice the size of the spot />, but is
placed one-half the distance from the center that b is placed.
Therefore, a and b arc balanced as they would be in mechanics.
In Fig. 12 the spot a is four times the size of the spot b,
but these t\v<> are balanced because the distance a c is only
one-fourth of the distance be. Just as the difference in the
weight of two bodies depends partly on their size and partly
on the weight of the material composing them, so the differ-
ence in the importance of two spots is not determined solely
on their relative sizes, but also on their relative light-
and-shade values. This is as shown in Fig. 13, where the
spot a is twiee the size of spot b but its light-and-shade value

§1

PEN-AND-INK RENDERING

is only half as strong as b, and therefore these two are bal-
anced when equidistant from the center c, because a, being
half as strong, is twice the size of b, and therefore equal in
value. In Fig. 14 the lighter value a is balanced by the dark
value b, although the latter is but one-fourth the size of a.
Being one-fourth the size and twice the strength in color,
it has half the value of a and balances with a when placed
from c a distance twice as great as a is placed.

10. Balance in composition consists of the proper group-
ing of the masses of light and shade so that the eye is
directed toward a central point.

In order to appreciate this the student should make for
himself several problems in the balancing of spots, working
first with squares and rectangles and calculating and measur-
ing them accurately. Irregular spots should then be taken,

Fig. 13

Fig. 14

and finally natural objects should be grouped in order to get
their light-and-shade values properly balanced within a given
rectangle. If, on looking at his drawing, the student feels
that there is more weight, so to speak, on one side than
on another, the balance can be restored by deepening the
color or shadow or by increasing its area. This principle of
balance must be considered carefully in all work of the pen
draftsman. Study the work of prominent illustrators with
these principles in mind and observe whether the values
distribute themselves properly so that the eye is held to
the center of the drawing.

The best effects are obtained usually when a drawing has
its principal dark spot brought into balance by a smaller
dark spot combined with a proper amount of other values.

ELEMENTS OF

§1

It is not necessary that the center of balance be exactly
in the center of the picture. It is usually near the center,
however, and is only removed therefrom to produce some
special purpose. In general pictorial composition the bal-
ancing of equal masses is not satisfactory, as it is likely
to introduce an appearance of doubleness to the picture;
that is to say, the two equal masses will divide the interest
instead of uniting' it, in one general effect. Therefore, the
important mass or center of attraction in the picture should
be made most prominent, and the minor masses rendered
in values that will properly balance it without competing
with it in importance.

In decorative composition, however, a symmetrical arrange-
ment of one mass equally balancing the other mass is
frequently employed and is one of the most useful elements
in this line of work.

(')

11. Rhythm, applied to composition, is an orderly

movement from form to form, from line to line, or from

value to value. The
even gradation from
black to white, as
shown in Figs. 3 and
4, is a rhythm of val-
ues. It is an even
progression that is

smooth and satisfactory, giving a feeling of restfulness.

In Fig. L"), the contrast between (/>) and (c) is so much

greater than between

(/') and (a) that there

is no rhythm. There

is also no rhythm in

Fig. L6, for the jump

from (a) to (/>) is

greater than from (/>)

to (<); in other words, (/>) is much lighter than {a) though

values in Fig. 17, tor (a), (/>) , and (c) progress evenly in tone

(")

Fig. L6

(•)

§1

PEN-AND-INK RENDERING

from one to the other, and the step from (a) to (b) is prac-
tically the same as the step from (b) to (c).

Comparing- these values with those in Fig. 4, it will be
seen that the jump from (b) to (r), Fig. 15, is practically the
same as the jump from (/>) to (<?), Fig. 4, while in Fig. 16
the jump from (a) to
(b) is practically the
same as the jump
from (<?) to {d) ,Fig. 4;
but in Fig. 17, the
values {a), (b), and
(<r) correspond to the
values (a), (c) , and

(<?), Fig. 4, and are therefore rhythmic. The use of values
in Fig. 17 would, as a rule, give a more satisfactory render-
ing of a drawing than the use of unrelated values in Figs. 15
and 16, although there are occasions where these great
contrasts may be required.

12. Rhythm of line in pen drawing is an orderly move-
ment or progression from line to line. For instance, observe
in Fig. 18 (a) how one line leads gracefully and evenly to

(•)

'((

(a)

Fig. 18

another line, and the eye follows from one to the other
without interruption or break; but at (b) the lines are
broken and antagonistic, and give a feeling of unrest.
The lines at (<?) are rhythmic; the lines at (b) are not.
There are occasions where the form of shading shown at (b)
is necessary and useful, particularly where the rough, uneven
surface is required, the very feeling of the antagonism

14 ELEMENTS OF §1

and contrast of the lines producing- the feeling of roughness
of surface that is intended. As a rule, however, the form of
rendering shown in Fig. 18 {a) is more pleasing and more

suitable.

13. Harmony in composition arises from a consistency
in the character of the lines and tones. The term harmony
is more frequently used in connection with color work, but it
may be used in pen rendering as well to signify in the choice
of the lines that are used for the representation of different
objects. In a successful drawing there is always a similarity
in character in all the lines used. They may, and usually
should, vary in strength and in lesser characteristics, but
they should all have something in common.

Compare the drawing by Gibson, Fig. 44, with that by
Xew, Fig. 55. It is clear that there is a great difference of
handling here. In the Gibson drawing all the lines are brisk,
strong, and nervous — evidently quickly drawn; but in the
drawing by New there is no evidence of rapidity of execution,
and the lines exhibit a slowness of stroke that is character-
istic of this artist's work. Compare, also, the long, sinuous
lines of Beardsley, Fig. 49, and Bradley, Fig. 58, with the
short strokes used by Vierge, Fig. 33. Each of these men
has a line characteristic of himself; and all lines in any of
these drawings are uniform in character. This gives a
harmony that stamps the drawing as clearly the work of
its individual artist, as does the signature of the artist
beneath it.

The tendency of the beginner is to use lines of varying and
uncertain character in his drawing. This is to be expected
at first and should cause the student no discouragement, for
harmony of line can only be achieved after much practice
with the right principles constantly before the mind. Con-
stant work will bring the student into a path that will be as
much his own as his manner of speaking or walking.

The student should always study the work of good pen
artists — not to copy it, but to learn from it the method of
expression. No two are exactly alike, and yet all illustrate

§1 PEN-AND-INK RENDERING 15

the same principles. The student's own individual way, if
properly worked up, will always be best suited to his tastes,
and there is no more reason why he should imitate one man's
way of working than he should imitate his way of walking
or writing. No two men write exactly alike, and it seldom
happens that one man tries to imitate another man's style,
either of language or of handwriting. After much practice,
without giving much thought to the appearance of the writing
so long as it is legible, a man falls into a system of his own
which can be recognized by his friends, or identified by a
stranger. It is the same with drawing. The student should
study principles, and not methods. His own methods will
soon take form and will give character to his work. Never-
theless, it is a useful exercise occasionally to copy a drawing
in facsimile.

TEXTURES

14. An important element in the consideration of all
drawing is the question of light and shade on the object,
and the character of line with which it is rendered. One
must be made to feel the material of which every part of
the depicted object is composed the moment he looks on
a drawing. A shingle roof must be rendered in such a
manner that it expresses shingles, without drawing individu-
ally a single shingle upon it. A brick wall should be specific
of regularly coursed bricks, without any attempt to lay out
those bricks in hard outlines. Heavy draperies should
express themselves by the weight of their folds, and light
draperies should show their texture by the method of their
rendering.

By texture, in rendering, is meant the expression of the
particular quality that characterizes any material represented.
It is a very broad term and is frequently used, as it is very
essential to suggest in a satisfactory manner the difference
in material of parts of a study. It is very important in illus-
trating that texture be shown, but it can be very easily
overdone. It should be suggested rather than expressed.

A plain brick wall ruled off to show all the joints in

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the brickwork, as in Fig. 19 (a), would make a very
monotonous and uninteresting drawing, inasmuch as in
our illustration we are not particularly concerned in the
masonry of this construction but only in its pictorial
value. Properly rendered, a brick wall can be made to
show its texture without an expression of more than a
few bricks in its entire surface, as in Fig. 19 (/?), and even at
times without the direct indication of any bricks at all. On
the other hand, much life can be given to an illustration by
the careful rendering of these simple textures, as may be
seen in the illustration by Herbert Railton, Fig. 40. This
artist's drawings show his tendency to work up the details
of texture rather more minutely than can be generally

recommended, as much skill is required in order to prevent
such close working from destroying the general interest in
the composition.

Observe on the left-hand wall in this illustration the occa-
sional suggestion of coursed brickwork, with broad, gray
spaces that may represent plaster and contrast strongly
with the sunlit portions of the building on the end of the
alley and wall opposite. The roof on the distant building
shows by its irregular outline the dilapidated condition of
the structure, as also does the dip in the square opening
underneath. All of these details go toward telling a story of
age and decay that are rapidly affecting these architectural

§1 PEN-AND-INK RENDERING 17

details, and in telling this story they tend entirely to the
expression of texture in the material.

In Fig. 41 we have an illustration by the same artist
where the broad expanses of wall and chimney, through
which the timber construction occasionally shows, easily
conveys the impression of its plaster texture. The work
below and in the neighboring walls and chimney tells a story
of coursed brickwork, and does not interfere in any way with
the composition of the picture by giving too much impor-
tance to the elements of this architectural construction.
Another illustration by this artist is shown in Fig. 41, where
the stonework in the Gothic edifice forming the center of
interest is simply indicated by means of a few shadows cast
at the joints. The bricks of the distant chimneys and texture
of the side walls of the adjacent building are clearly indicated
without in any way becoming obtrusive in the composition.

EXAMPLES OF WORK

15. D. A. Gregg. — Among the architectural draftsmen
D. A. Gregg stands unexcelled in straightforward and thor-
oughly understood architectural rendering. Observe in his
view at Vire, Fig. 20, how the texture of each surface is
clearly indicated by a series of well-placed lines, and yet the
entire rendering possesses even tones free from obtrusive
spots or contrasts. Observe how the shades are connected
so that one leads easily to another. The methods of pro-
ducing these effects are worthy of study. Note that most
of the shadows are rendered by vertical lines, and that in
the shadows of the projections of the tower, the lines of the
stonework are simply emphasized to give the effect. It is
interesting to see how the tower is emphasized by making
it the largest dark mass of the picture, and also by giving
explicit attention to its details.

Quite different in the method of rendering is his drawing
of the Chateau of Martainville, Fig. 21, where horizontal
lines are used, giving the impression of a brick wall with
stone trimmings in place of the stonework shown in Fig. 20.

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This direct rendering gives a transparency to the shadows
and an atmospheric effect to Mr. Gregg's drawing that is
strongly characteristic of all his work.

In Fig. 22 the interior of a church is shown, on the left
side of which the details of the piers are indicated simply by
a few well-placed shadows that give a feeling of a flood of
sunlight. Note how the pews are simply indicated by a
break in the shade lines marking the backs of the seats.
The fan vaulting overhead makes itself felt rather than seen.
Notice also how the shadows under the arches on the left
side are deeper by contrast with a bright light than they are
on the right, and that although they appear nearly black,
the element of pen rendering is apparent in them, as a cer-
tain amount of white space remains uncovered. This black
spot on the extreme left balances the middle tone from the
center to the extreme right. It should be noted that Mr.
Gregg is always exact and firm in his drawing although he
so sparingly employs outlines. Although the suggestions of
detail are often slight, they are precise. This is important
for the student to realize, for the work of the tyro is apt
to become careless rather than suggestive in his efforts to
produce a free drawing.

Hi. Bertram (•. Good hue, another architectural drafts-
man whose work should be carefully studied, characterizes
his renderings by a careful drawing of details and due con-
sideration of broad effects of light and shade. The Somer-
ville church, shown in Fig. 23, shows freedom and refinement
of handling and a bright sunny effect that is delightful to
the eye and serves to present the aixhitectural design to
advantage. The textures illustrated here are worthy of
study, as is also the sparing use of cross-hatching. There
arc places where Goodhue has found cross-hatching a
convenient and direct method of accomplishing certain pur-
poses, but it is never introduced except where required.

It must be remembered that this drawing (like all of
these illustrations) is much reduced from the original size
and that the pen lines appear very much finer and closer

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together than they were drawn, although of course they
remain in the proper proportion to the size of the drawing.
Goodhue, however, uses his lines in a somewhat closer
manner than Gregg. A comparison of the styles of these
two men is interesting. Compare the methods of handling
foliage employed by each.

17. Charles D. Maginnis is another architectural
draftsman whose work it is well to study in comparison
with the style of Gregg, for there are many points in
common, yet the work of Maginnis possesses strongly
individual characteristics. There is a delicacy and lightness
of touch that will quickly be noted. Fig. 24 shows his
rendering of Wheelwright's design for the city ferry
house at East Boston. Here the full sunlight of the front
of the building and the cool shadow under the shed are
pleasingly contrasted, while the ornamental ironwork pro-
filed against the latter is also pleasingly expressed. Sketch-
ing here does not degenerate into carelessness, and though
all the details may be free and light there is an ever-
present feeling of painstaking care throughout the entire
composition.

The rendering of the schoolhouse shown in Fig. 25 is also
worthy of study on account of the expression given to all
the details and the texture. Observe how the detailing of
the bricks in the gate posts prevent these posts from confu-
sing themselves with the shade on the lower part of the
building, and that throughout the whole drawing there is a
simplicity of line that adds greatly to the beauty of the work.
There is no cross-hatching here, and while the building is
drawn almost entirely with horizontal lines the foliage and
distance is expressed almost entirely with diagonal lines.
It would be difficult to find an example of pen work wherein
the simplicity of line rendering is carried out more beauti-
fully than this.

A point to be noted in these two drawings is the roof
treatments. In each the central light of the composition is
carried into the roof. This helps to give a very sunny

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26 ELEMENTS OF §1

effect to the drawings, though in the hands of a draftsman
less clever than Maginnis so much white might easily
make the rendering ghostly or weak.

18. Frank A. Hays. — Fig. 26 is a rendering of the old
Arnold mansion, by Frank A. Hays, that is well worthy of
study on account of the delicate and sketchy handling.
Sketchy as it may appear, the student must bear in mind
tint it must originally have been drawn out carefully in
order that the few lines with which it is rendered could
be properly placed. The introduction of the vine climbing
up the corners of the house is very pleasing and is simply
rendered.

The study of the foliage by different pen artists is inter-
esting and instructive, as each finds a way for himself to
convey the idea. The sketchy treatment here gives the
impression of an old mansion. It would not be an appro-
priate thing to transfer this handling to the rendering of a
new house, though that mistake is sometimes made by
arehitectural draftsmen in their anxiety to produce pic-
turesqueness.

19. Harry Fenii. — The work of Harry Fenn is very
interesting, as it possesses a directness of method worthy
of study. The student should be careful, however, not to
attempt to follow the work of this artist too closely, or he
will be likely to fall into the same dangers as were pointed
out in eonncction with the work of Railton. It requires
the greatest skill to work architectural detail up as closely
as is done in these examples, without carrying it too far.
Careful study of Fig. 27 will show how large a variety of
methods of handling have been employed to bring out the
various textures. Compare the briskly drawn lines of the
ceiling with the shorter, heavier lines of the carpet, which
so well suggest its surface. It is interesting to note the
spatter work used to express the brickwork of the fireplace.
The character of the bricks in the fireplace is well preserved
without making them too prominent in the composition.
The polished surface of the table is indicated by a few lines

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showing the reflections of surrounding- objects. All that
has been necessary to convey the proper idea is the simple
suggestion of the characteristics of the material represented,
as the human mind is so subtle that it will grasp the full idea
from the merest indications.

Cross-hatching is skilfully employed in the shadows of the
farther walls. The snappy little touches of black throughout
the drawing are thoroughly characteristic of Mr. Fenn's work.
Note the grouping of the shadows in Fig. 28, and the intro-
duction of the bird in the foreground, the masses being
grouped so as to hold the interest to the center of the
picture and give distance to the composition.

The lower part of the building is suggestive of stone-
work, while the upper part indicates its texture simply by
the character of its architectural details. The stone wall in
front of the building is of no importance in the composition
except to introduce a dark mass in the center and to assist
in giving distance or perspective to the building; yet, the
texture of this wall is clearly indicated by means of a few
simple lines showing the courses of stone.

20. W. Campbell. — An example of a central dark spot
balanced by masses of half tone on either side is shown in
Fig. 29, in the work of Mr. Campbell on the Palais de Justice
in France. The student should observe the textures in the
roof and side walls, the brickwork on the right arranged in
geometrical forms, and the panels of brickwork on the pavil-
ion directly in front of the eye. Note, too, how the foliage
is massed in order to produce the dark spot under the roof,
as before suggested, and how the tones lead rhythmatically
from one to the other and establish a satisfactory unity in
the composition. The little patch of sky effect is well
introduced; it helps to round up the composition. It is
instructive to study the means Campbell lias employed in
drawing the iron fence with reality of effect and variety
of handling.

Fig. 30 is a piece of work by Campbell that is inter-
esting to compare with the photograph, Fig. 31, from which

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34 ELEMENTS OF §1

it was probably drawn. The texture given the roof in
comparison with that given the side walls is of particular
interest, and the figure that in the photograph shows in the
doorway is moved out on to the bridge in order to form a
spot of black nearer the shade of the arched opening beneath
the bridge. In the photograph, it will be observed that the
vine on the bridge and the opening in the arch under the
bridge form, with the mass of trees in the background, a
large dark spot on the right side of the picture. In the
rendering, Campbell has eliminated the dark effect of
the vine, reduced the effect of the shadow under the entrance
door, and balanced the shadows of the building in such a
manner that the pen rendering is a much more pleasing
composition than the photograph.

21. Ernst Peixotto. — The drawing shown in Fig. 32,
by Ernst Peixotto, is a good example of balance in a compo-
sition. Note how the artist has drawn the figures and vehicles
in the left-hand corner of the picture simply in outline, while
those in the center are massed in deep shadow, thus making
one spot dark in the center of the composition balanced on
either side by masses of light and half tone. In this way
the eye is led up to the principal feature which the drawing
illustrates — that of the new building on the right side.

22. Daniel Vierge is properly considered one of the
greatest of pen draftsmen; his drawings had much to do with
forming the modern style of pen drawing. His work is
masterly; his compositions dramatic; and his drawings full
of character; and, technically, he has no superior. His methods
are the simplest and his results are full of exquisite refine-
ment. Oftentimes he uses, besides outline, only half tone
and small spots of black. Observe in Fig. 33 the excellence
of his drawing and the clean and direct use of the pen
throughout his work. His methods are commended to the
student for emulation, for to arrive at such results as those
attained by Vierge requires nothing short of genius.

2.3. Martin Rico is a Spanish artist whose methods
have taught a valuable lesson to scores of students. He is

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noted for his ability to indicate textures and preserve the
transparency of his shadows so as to show the texture
of objects, even in shadow. His renderings of Venetian
subjects in full sunlight are brilliant in the extreme. His
use of line is more sketchy than that of Vierge, but it is in
its way most admirable. Note the sunny feeling in Fig. 34,
and the contrasts of the light and shade. Fig. 35 is charac-
teristic of his work and shows a Venetian byway wherein
the deep shadows are strongly suggestive of a full and bril-
liant play of sunshine that makes one feel the climate and

Fig. 34

the atmosphere. It will be noted, however, that the flowers
in the pots on the balconies under the windows and the
foliage extending above the wall in the distance are indicated
with the fewest possible number of lines, and suggested
in such a subtle manner that one feels their presence without
really looking for them or knowing that they are actually
drawn there.

In Fig. 36, by the same artist, but one side of the street is
shown, although the deep shadow indicates that buildings on
the opposite side cut off the brilliant sunlight that floods the

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40 ELEMENTS OF §1

rest of the composition. Observe the texture of this shadow,
and what a difference there is in the texture of a shadow
where it falls in the street and where it falls on the walls of
the buildings. There is no cross-hatching in it, and yet the
roughness of the street is fully indicated and contrasted with
the smoothness of the walls of the building. The introduc-
tion of the figure adds interest and gives life to the drawing
without in any way detracting from the character of the
surrounding work, while it contrasts admirably with the
texture of the walls and street.

The pen drawings of Martin Rico have almost the qualities
of paintings, so strongly do they suggest color. His lines are
so used that we forget them in the tones which they form.
Yet the lines are used with economy and technical skill.
Such freedom and adequacy of handling is the result only of
full artistic knowledge. The figures are spotted in so as to
give an excellent impression of movement. Their impres-
sionistic treatment is hardly within the range of the beginner.

24. Maxime Lalanne. — Quite a contrast with these
methods of working are the sketches by Maxime Lalanne,
whose manner is delightful and unaffected. There can be
little doubt that Lalanne's method is simplicity itself, as
shown in Figs. 37 and 38. Note in Fig. 37 all the details
of the chateau; the distant elm tree and the bank in the
foreground are clearly expressed without an unnecessary
line. The details of Fig. 38 are worked up somewhat more
fully, but the full sketchy appearance is maintained admirably.
Lalanne depends largely on outlines, and introduces his half
tones merely as suggestions to dignify and solidify the
structures. The architectural sense of the artist appears
strongly in his slightest suggestions of a building. Com-
pare the lines employed in the outlines of the trees with
those of the buildings in Fig. 38.

There are many draftsmen whose methods are more capti-
vating at first sight, but there are none whose drawings are
better in style than Lalanne's. His drawings show that he
understands and sympathizes with the architecture he renders,

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Fig. 38

42 ELEMENTS OF §1

as he indicates nothing in a hazy or uncertain way. Each line
is drawn to represent something.

25. Herbert Railton. — The work of Herbert Railton,
shown in Fig. 39, is in strong contrast with that of Maxime
Lalanne's. Herbert Railton's work is rich in coloring, brisk
and clever in technique, and quite fascinating in style; it is
full of variety, and very clever of touch. It possesses a dash
that is certainly absent from such drawings as Lalanne's, and
Railton therefore has many would-be imitators. There is
much to be learned from this work, but as has been said
before, the student must be careful not to be carried away
by the clever treatment and elaboration of the details.

In Fig. 39 note how important a part the two figures play
in the composition. This can be seen by covering them with
the fingers and noting the change of effect. In Fig. 40 the
treatment of old brickwork is well worth study, but remem-
ber that this is old brickwork partly covered with plaster.
Such treatment cannot appropriately be applied to new
brickwork. Fig. 41 is the simplest in technique of the three
examples, and is therefore perhaps the one offering the most
help to the student.

20. Joseph Pennell is an American who has distin-
guished himself not only as a pen-and-ink artist but as an
etcher. His subjects have been largely architectural, and it
is not difficult to detect in some of his work the influences
of such artists as Vierge and Rico. Whatever artists he
may have studied, there can be no doubt that Pennell's
handling of the pen is original and quite his own. He sug-
gests light and air at the same time that he represents the
charm of architectural groups of buildings or of picturesque
nooks and corners. He uses the pen freely, but with full
knowledge that every line acts in the effect, that an extra
line is wasted, and that nothing must be omitted. Figs. 42
and !•'! are excellent examples of his rendering, and illus-
trate how carefully he has studied the architectural detail
of his subjects as well as the atmosphere in which they exist.
An artist must do more than draw a portrait of his subject;

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he must suggest its surroundings in such a manner that one
feels the very atmosphere in which he draws. The sparing
use of darks gives to Fig. 42 the light and outdoor feeling
that is so noticeable. In Fig. 43 the different qualities of
line used to express the various textures are worthy of study.

27. Charles Dana Gibson. — Probably no artist's work
in America is better known to the general public than that of
Charles Dana Gibson, so that it is unnecessary to describe
the general style of his pictures. The technique of his work,
however, is hardly responsible for his success as an illus-
trator, as it is always subordinate to the idea that he illus-
trates. His work possesses marked individuality and power
in his technique, as is particularly well shown in Figs. 44
and 45. In the former a very subtle feeling has been
expressed in the difference of line used to depict the figure
of the man and contrast it with the delicate, shadowy form
of the specter beside him. Not only have these forms been
contrasted in idea, but also in the method of handling; one,
drawn with a bold and vigorous touch, contrasts with the
other, which is executed with little but a ghost of a line.
Cross-hatching is here very sparingly used, and is charac-
teristic of Gibson's work. His style of rendering is broad
and sketchy. Attempts to outline sharply with a single line
are rarely made by him, but with a few well-placed and
vigorously drawn lines he expresses, as in Fig. 44, the
characteristic ruggedness of his subject, or as in Fig. 45, the
delicacy desired to be imparted, according to the character.

28. Alphon.se Mucha is a Parisian artist famous for
his poster designs. The illustration in Fig. 46 shows his
fine draftsmanship and his wonderful use of line. His designs
are thoroughly workmanlike in their execution, and in the
use of several different widths of line so chosen as to express
the more important forms of the composition in right relation
to the others, he is masterly. His work should be studied
with the greatest care. Its perfection of drawing and grace
of line are marvelous down to the least detail. Fig. 47 is a
good example of the harmonizing of lettering with the rest

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of the design. The exquisite drawing of the folds of drapery
and of the hands are points that should not escape the
student's attention.

29. Aubrey Beardsley,

who died when he was about
24 years of age, was undoubt-
edly a genius. His work was
often weird and sometimes
somewhat offensive in its con-
ception, but technically his
use of the pen was masterly.
His idea of composition was
rare, and his methods have
had a lasting influence in deco-
rative design. His drawings
can hardly be judged from an
academic point of view, but
his use of line teaches us many
valuable lessons. Fig. 48 illus-
trates the decision and grace
that were characteristic of his
work. His original use of the
dot forms quite an important
part of this composition. The
effect of Fig. 49 (while not so
simple as that of Fig. 48) is
elaborately rich in its decora-
tive treatment. Not a line is
used that does not in itself
show keen artistry.

30. Louis Ruead. — In

Figs. 50 and 51 are two ex-
amples of work by Louis
Rhead — pictorial illustrations

treated in a decorative manner. Notice the well-balanced
arrangement of values, the vigorous treatment of figures, and
the architecture and details of the landscape. See how all

Fir,. 47

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textures have been decoratively rendered so that they give
just the proper values in the proper place. The firmness of
line of these drawings should be noted and the careful draw-
ing of figures and buildings is worthy the student's attention.

31. Charles Robinson. — Figs. 52 and 53 are by
Charles Robinson, an English artist, whose work possesses
much originality and personal charm. These two figures
were designed to go on opposite pages of a small book and
form a continuation of the same idea. In other words, they
illustrate the text in a decorative manner, Fig. 52 representing
a man standing in a stream of water, offering an ax to the
individual in Fig. 53, who stands on the bank. Observe the
purely decorative manner of treating this subject; no attempt
being made toward realism, but a simple application of
decorative principles to an illustrative subject.

32. R. Aiming Bell has produced, in England, a number
of very graceful compositions in pen and ink. His use of
line is quite different from that of Alphonse Mucha, as can be
seen at a glance. It is apparent that he frequently uses a
quill pen, as his lines are rich and bold. Many of his drawings
are in outline and black alone. His spotting is very attractive,
and altogether his results are rich and highly decorative.
Fig. 54 shows a bold use of black that is very pleasing. The
great simplicity of this composition gives it much of its charm.
The delightful suggestion of the distant city over the trees
interests us and stimulates our imagination, and yet its treat-
ment is really very simple. A very few well-chosen lines tell
the whole story.

33. E. H. New. — The work of E. H. New shows a
difference of method from that of Railton, but the works
of these two men are interesting to compare as being
standards of the English style. New does not employ so
nervous a line as Railton and the effect of his line drawings
is toward a gray. In decorative treatment he gives texture
to his work that makes his drawings admirably suited to
design, and when printed on a page of rather heavy type
his drawings harmonize beautifully. The book-plate design

PEN-AND-INK RENDERING

58 ELEMENTS OF §1

shown in Fig. 55 serves well to illustrate the decorative
quality of his work.

The directness, firmness of drawing, and strength and
simplicity of effect in New's work, give it a high place
among that of the decorative illustrators. Notice that he
employs largely straight lines while Railton is fond of
curving lines. The lines of New appear to be slowly drawn,
while those of Railton seem to be rapidly swept in.

34. Joseph Sattler. — Fig. 56 shows a book plate
designed by Joseph Sattler, a German artist. His work
is very vigorous; his lines, bold and well placed, while
simple in composition, render his drawings pleasing and
satisfactory. The action in the figure of the skeleton in this
example is well expressed under the weight of the books,
while the balance in the composition is maintained by the
cipher initials of the owner in the lower right-hand corner.
Note that both the elements of design and composition are
clearly expressed in the methods of procedure of this artist.
As this design is for a book plate to be placed within the
cover of the book, indicative of ownership, the two impor-
tant things here, from a utilitarian standpoint, are the books
and the man that owns them. These are combined in the
design by prominence given to the books in the upper left-
hand corner and prominence given to the man's initials in
the lower right-hand corner, thus establishing a' balance
about the center. Note, however, that in balancing the
values the books that have been made of the stronger value
are placed nearer the center of the picture.

35. Will Bradley, an American, shows materially the
influence of Beardsley's work, as can be seen by a study of
the cover designs for The Inland Printer herewith reproduced,
Figs. 57 and 58, which are particularly characteristic of
Bradley's methods of working and show the influence of the
Beardsley school. His work is individual, and the best of
it is of a very high order of design. Observe in Fig. 59 the
clever balancing of the masses of the two figures where the
black figure with the white muff is beside the white figure

PEN-AND-INK RENDERING

! 2

698357A

ELEMENTS OF

§1

PEN-AND-INK RENDERING

62 ELEMENTS OF § 1

with a bunch of black holly. Note the careful spotting of
the background in such a way that the black and white forms
a half tone that contrasts beautifully with the two figures.

Bradley's lettering on these cover designs is well worthy
of study also, as it is always excellent in style and beauti-
fully related to the design itself. In decorative designs of
this character the lettering forms quite as important a detail
as the design itself; in Fig. 57 it forms the important feature
of the design, the figure in the corner being purely secondary.
In Fig. 60, however, the lettering is of less importance, but
observe how it forms a proper black spot to balance the
figure on the left of the cover. Note also how outline is
ignored entirely here and that all the details of this design
are formed by carefully placed masses of black and white
that give at once an ingenious design and a highly decorative
effect. The lettering in Fig. 58 is an example of skilful
and decorative work.

Fig. 61 is another cover by Bradley wherein the general
tone is entirely dark, but by means of a few small masses of
white a figure is outlined that adds dignity and character
to the whole.

36. Examples of Cover Designs. — In Fig. 62 is shown
a cover design by Hapgood which is greatly different from
those by Bradley that have just been described. It is an
admirable blending of decorative forms with properly bal-
anced lettering. The lettering is well related to the design
and the total effect is rich and strong.

In Fig. 63 is a design by Frank Hazenplug, the lettering
of which is admirable and forms the principal feature.

Entirely different from these are the two designs shown in
Figs. 64 and 65 by Leydendecker, the latter characteristic of
the French poster style, while the former is more symbolic
and conventional.

In studying these cover designs for the same publication
by different artists, the student can follow the simplicity of
idea and yet observe how totally unlike the renderings of
different artists are when applied to the same purpose.

§1

PEN-AND-INK RENDERING

ELEMENTS OF

s c

§1

PEN-AND-INK RENDERING

66 PEN-AND-INK RENDERING §1

37. Importance of Texture in Composition. — Too

much cannot be said on the subject of texture in compo-
sition, and appreciation of the use of line for the rendering
of certain subjects. Much can be learned from the careful
and intelligent study of good artists' work, but nothing can
be obtained by an attempt to copy their style. It may truly
be said that all lines and tones used by these artists are
illustrated in Figs. 4 and 18; and that all the variety of style,
appearance, technique, and composition that is found in their
work is due entirely to their personality and individuality.

As pointed out, Gibson uses a light, delicate line for
a delicate subject, and a bold line for a bold subject.
Beardsley, in Fig. 48, uses a bold line for his outlines, and
a delicate, dotted line for the flimsy lacework and puffs
of the woman's gown. Herbert Railton, in Fig. 40, uses
a sketchy, scratchy line to indicate his old brickwork and
partially crumbled plaster; while Gregg, in Fig. 20,
indicates the firm stonework in his tower by carefully
placed values indicative of coursed masonry, with a sug-
gestion here and there of a crumbling joint. Martin Rico
secures the feeling of brilliant, warm Venetian sunshine
in his pictures by using large masses of white contrasted
with rather deep shadow, whereas Maxime Lalanne creates a
similar impression by the subtle delicacy of the details in his
sketches without expressing any deep shadows at all.

The student should therefore realize that in practicing pen
work he is not to judge the results of his efforts by the
appearance or style of his own productions, in comparison
with those of some one else. His style will develop as he
proceeds, and his work become characteristic of himself as
the work of the artists herein illustrated has become charac-
teristic of each of them.

RENDERING WITH PEN AND
BRUSH

INTRODUCTION

MATERIALS USED

1. Outlining;. — The outfit required for pen-and-ink ren-
dering is simple, but each detail should be the best of its
kind. The preliminary pencil drawing should always be
carefully rendered in outline with a finely pointed pencil, and
nothing left in the way of outline to be afterwards executed
with the pen. When the pen does any outlining at all it
simply traces the outline over the pencil line, but as a rule
it will be found that outlines are ignored in pen drawing and
that the pen is used simply to' express masses of light and
shade, leaving the outline to take care of itself.

2. Erasers. — A soft rubber should be used to correct
errors made in the pencil drawing, and a sharp knife may be
used for scratching out failures in the inking, but the knife
should be used very sparingly, as it is very difficult to work
over a scratched spot and produce a neat line.

3. Paper. — For paper, a good quality of bristol board
should be used. The surface must be smooth and well
calendered, so that there shall be no tendency for the ink to
spread. Almost any smooth paper with a hard surface may
be used, but it should be tested by drawing the pen across
the surface to see that it moves freely and smoothly and
leaves a fine, unblurred line of ink.

For notice of copyright, see page immediately following the title page
'i.2

RENDERING WITH PEN AND BRUSH §2

Experimental rendering- may be tried by placing over the
pencil sketch a piece of transparent tracing papei and
rendering the drawing on the tracing paper withoiA the
outline. Several systems of rendering can thus be experi-
mented with before the final rendering is attempted. The
pen drawing on the tracing paper can be mounted on card-
board and preserved if desired.

4. Pens of various brands are made and sold especially
for drawing, and although certain of these are excellent
in the hands of an experienced draftsman, it is not at all
necessary that any special make should be used during
study. Gillott's No. 303 will make as fine a line as is
necessary or desirable in a pen drawing that is intended
for practical work; that is, for work that is to be reproduced
as an illustration. Gillott's No. 404 is fine enough for
bolder lines, and Esterbrook's bank pen, No. 14, is excellent
for certain kinds of work. An ordinary, old-fashioned quill
pen is very serviceable for decorative work where a broad, rich
line having something of the quality of a brush line is desired.

The beginner should use a coarse pen rather than a fine
pen; an Esterbrook's bank pen, No. 14, will be found excel-
lent for this purpose. The student will find that he can
secure as desirable a quality of line with this pen as with
any other, and by perseverance he can master it and make
it serve its purpose. Above all things, the student is advised
not to change pens, but to stick to one kind until he masters
it. It should be remembered that even the best of pens is
a stubborn instrument. Practice is the only cure for its
unwieldiness, and a great deal of practice is necessary in
order to train the hand and the pen to work together in
harmony. The pen should always be drawn toward the
draftsman when possible, and when it is moved sidewise it
should be turned so that the under side of the pen moves
away from the line being drawn. A pen, in pen-and-ink
drawing, should never be moved sidewise, as such move-
ment produces an uneven line and is likely to spatter the
ink by the point catching in the pores of the paper.

§2 RENDERING WITH PEN AND BRUSH 3

5. Ink. — Perfectly black ink of any kind may be used
for pen drawing. vSepia or brown inks are sometimes
used, but are of no importance except for special effects.
Black ink is absolutely necessary if the drawing is for repro-
duction by photoengraving, and in any case the effect of
the drawing is materially damaged by any variation in the
color of the ink with which it is drawn. Several inks on
the market give satisfactory results. Among these are
Higgins's American drawing ink for pen work, Higgins's
general drawing ink for wash work, Stafford's waterproof
and not waterproof inks for similar purposes, and l'Encre
de Chiene Liquide, a French product that is of practically
the same value.

COMMON ERRORS OF BEGINNERS

(>. Before undertaking any general exercises, it will be
well to point out the tendency toward which the average
beginner finds himself wandering. Fig. 1 is a reproduc-
tion of a drawing made by a student that had not properly
mastered his scale of values or his rhythm of line. It is
not a bad drawing for a novice, as from it one can see that
he has tried to obtain certain effects, but it is subject to the
following criticisms:

1. There is a lack of balance in the picture. The left
side, by its dark spots, attracts the eye more than the right
side, and there are two masses of nearly equal size on
the left — one formed by the trees a, b and the other by the
door c, with the wall at the side, the roof over it, and the
small mass of foliage over the roof. All of these details
are so nearly of one value that they form practically a single
dark spot in the left half of the picture. Two equal masses
of black in a picture, even if equally balanced, are not
desirable, as they divide the interest and have no unity of
effect. In this case, these two equal masses are doubly
disagreeable, as they are not balanced about the center.

2. The values in this drawing are uncertain; that is to
say, they lack purity and definiteness as well as rhythm.
For example, the roofs /, g are, in general effect, of about

RENDERING WITH PEN AND BRUSH

§2

the middle value, and are spotted with darker and lighter
values; this spotting adds no interest, gives no idea of its
material or texture, and is in itself ugly. The walls d and e
contain lines so light and weak and so hesitatingly drawn,
that they do not produce any effect whatever either of color
or of texture. They do not tell whether the wall is of wood,

stone, or plaster, or that any shadow falls on it; in fact,
they tell nothing, and might better have been left out entirely.
At least a part of the wall d should have been left white,
and another part of it might have had a few suggestions of
stonework or broken plaster in order to give an idea of its
material. If it is in shadow, we should see a tint; but instead
of that, where we should see values we have simply scratches.

§2 RENDERING WITH PEN AND BRUSH 5

The same may be said of the lines / introduced into the fore-
ground and those in the sky at h. These lines neither tell a
story nor represent value; they are simply meaningless. It
would have been better to have left the ground and sky plain;
or, if a value were needed, it should have been definitely
rendered and represented by lines of the proper kind.

3. The drawing is so lacking in definite values that there
is no possibility of a rhythmic movement from dark to light.
The lines i not properly related to one another and there
is a harsh, agreeable effect instead of a soft, pleasing one.
The lines u emselves are bad throughout. Even in the
enclosing line of the drawing, there is a lack of firmness and
evenness of stroke. Study any individual line, and it is seen
to vary in weight and strength, and its direction is uncertain.
This is in itself a fault. Whatever may be the width of a
line, that width should, as a rule, prevail throughout its
entire length. It should begin firmly and end firmly, and
not taper off to a point as these lines do.

Another fault in the use of lines is seen in the shadow
within the door at c. A few broad, rich strokes would have
given this point its proper tone and value. The results
with this method are mussy and muddy, in the same manner
as on the roof at,^.

4. There is a lack of rhythm in the lines between a and b.
The horizontal lines at a have no relation whatever to the
curved, scratchy lines above at b, and neither of them expresses
texture. In fact, none of the lines in the drawing makes
any attempt to express texture. The strokes at b fail to
give anything like a leafy effect; compare these with the
drawings of trees by Pennell in Fig. 42, Elements of Pen-and-
ink Rendering. The chimney does not tell us whether it is
of brick, stone, or plaster. There is nothing anywhere to
indicate material; compare it with the representation of brick
by Railton in Fig. 40, Elements of Pen-and-ink Rendering.

The window treatment is monotonous; the lines are lack-
ing in the lightness of touch that would suggest glass. The
window as a whole is too dark; it simply forms an isolated
spot in the drawing. The lines in the foreground are

6 RENDERING WITH PEN AND BRUSH §2

without any meaning whatsoever, although there has been an
evident attempt to express the idea of grass with a few short,
vertical strokes. Observe the treatment of the foregrounds
in Figs. 29 and 40, Elements of Pen-and-ink Rendering; the
lines are few, but they clearly tell a definite story of earth,
stones, grass, and weeds.

DRAWING PLATES

DRAWING PLATE, TITLE: PRELIMINARY PEN
PRACTICE

7. The work on this plate is to be done by the student
and sent in for criticism, in order that we may judge how
much he has profited by the preliminary instruction given.

On a sheet of bristol board, 14 inches by 18 inches, draw
a border line enclosing a space 13 inches by 17 inches, and
divide the rectangle so formed, through the middle by a
line a a, 8t inches from the end border lines. The line bb
is located 2 inch to the left of a. cc is 6i inches above the
lower border line, and d d is f inch below c. These lines
will divide the drawing plate into four sections, each one
containing a number of figures. Vertical lines ee and //
and a horizontal line from e to / should be drawn i inch
above the lower border line.

Figs. 1, 2, and 3 are contained in three rectangles 3i inches
by 2i inches, which have a line 1 inch below the upper
border line as their upper limits. Immediately below them
Fig. 4 is drawn extending from the line ee to the line bb,
1 inch in width. Fig. 5 is drawn within a rectangle 1 inch
in width and i inch below Fig. 4. Fig. 13 is f inch below
Fig. 5 and f inch in width. Fig. 14 is i inch below Fig. 13
and i? inch in width. Figs. 18 and 19 are i inch below
Fig. 14 and are 3t inches by 3 inches. Figs. 6 and 7 con-
sist of a series of squares each being i inch below the other,
with I inch between the sets. There is also I inch between
Fig. 7 and Fig. 12, and the details or stripes of Fig. 12

THE NCW YORK
PUBLIC LIBRARY

ASTOR, LEiN'OX AND
TfLDEN FOUNDATIONS

FTREILH M H N^KY A

Fiy. 4-.

Fff.5.

F/?./8.

F/p./3.

Fig. /4.

FipJ9.

Printed hi the United States. Copyr
Entered at Stationers' J )l

»TEN - PRAC T I C IE

1904, by International Textbook ( 'ompany
London. All rights reserved

\<0-

Z^ WB* ™>-

§2 RENDERING WITH PEN AND BRUSH 7

are 1 inch in width and i inch apart. Figs. 15 and 20 are
2i inches by 31 inches, with a 2-inch space between them.
Figs. 21, 22, and 23 are 1 inch wide and i inch apart. The
space between these last three figures and Fig. 12 is then
divided into two parts to make space for Figs. 16 and 17.
Following these instructions, the student will have no diffi-
culty in laying out the drawing plate ready to commence
his pen work.

8. Each of the figures or exercises on this plate should
be practiced repeatedly, before the student attempts to draw
it on his drawing plate; but in practicing it is not necessary
that he should make a duplicate or facsimile of such exercises
as Figs. 1, 2, 3, 16, and 17, but simply an effort to render lines
in that style, according to the directions here given. All of
the subdivisions of the plate should be made with a T square
and triangle and drawn in pencil, and after the plate is
finished the pencil lines should be erased and the drawing
plate sent to the Schools for criticism. All of the ink work
on this plate is done directly, without any pencil foundation,
except Figs. 16 and 17, in which the outlines have been
previously drawn in pencil.

Generally speaking, the lines of these different exercises
are drawn at different rates of speed. All. vertical, horizon-
tal, and diagonal lines, which are practically straight lines,
are drawn carefully, deliberately, and evenly. They start
abruptly and end suddenly, and should not taper off to a
point where they finish.

Fig. 5 is made up of lines very slowly and carefully drawn.
It should take about 10 seconds to complete one of the
horizontal lines of which Fig. 5 is composed. In Fig. 8
the lines are drawn more rapidly, one following the other
without any general attempt at exact parallelism but simply
to secure a tint. The student will observe the difference in
quality owing to these two conditions. Fig. 1 consists of
groups of lines that are practically vertical and parallel.
They are drawn with a moderately brisk movement, about
half way in speed between Figs. 5 and 8.

8 RENDERING WITH PEN AND BRUSH §2

Fig. 2 consists of a series of horizontal lines. In this work
practice is imperative. It is more difficult than Fig. 1, and
the lines must be more slowly executed.

Fig. 3 is more difficult than either of the preceding, owing
to the change of direction of the different groups of lines.
Some of the lines are drawn from right to left, and others
from left to right. The horizontal lines in Fig. 2 are drawn
from left to right, and the ones more nearly approaching
horizontal in Fig. 3 should also be drawn in that direction.
Observe that the principle of rhythm has been carefully
observed in the arrangement of these lines, and see in your
exercises that you are equally careful. See that each group
of lines follows the preceding one naturally and is not butted
up against it at an obtuse angle.

Whichever figure is drawn, the effort should be to keep
the lines an even thickness, using a definite amount of
pressure throughout the entire stroke. In each of these
groups the lengths of the lines vary, and some of them are
simple curves, some reverse curves, and some straight lines.
This slight curvature of shade lines, varying under different
conditions, gives a variety and grace to the work. In ren-
dering this plate, do not attempt to copy any particular
figure, but simply produce a series of tints after the manner
they have been produced here, using the same direction of
line and rendering it in the same manner.

9. In Fig. 4 we have an even value, made up of slowly
drawn lines. The strength of the lines is uniform through-
out the figure, and the spaces between them, though varying
slightly in some places, is practically the same throughout
so that it produces the effect of an even shade. Many of
the lines are broken, but care has been exercised to see that
several breaks do not occur together, so as to produce the
effect of a white line.

Fig. 5 differs from Fig. 4 only in the direction of the
lines. The pen is turned, in drawing from left to right, in
order that both of the nibs or points shall rest evenly on the
paper. The lines should be broken from time to time as the

§2 RENDERING WITH PEN AND BRUSH 9

work proceeds, and an effort should be made to avoid an
even waviness.

Figs. 6 and 7 should be drawn according to preceding
instructions. Each of these represents a scale of five values.
Draw the darkest value first. In both instances use consid-
erable pressure on the pen and execute each stroke slowly.
Place them so close together that they run into one another,
except at a few points where the white shows through, but
be careful not to make any blots. Considerable ink runs
from the pen to the paper in making this dark value, and it
is sometimes necessary to take up some of it with a piece of
blotting paper. In so doing, let only the edge of the blot-
ting paper touch the top of the ink; do not press the blotting-
paper to the drawing paper or a blot and a pale shade of ink
will result. After making this darkest value, wait for it to
dry, and then put in the middle value, using a moderate
pressure and noting carefully the space between the lines in
order to preserve uniformity. Follow the middle tint by the
dark gray below it. The stroke for the dark gray is of about
the same weight as that used for the darkest tint, but the
lines are spaced farther apart. The lighter gray tint is pre-
pared with lighter lines than those of the middle tint and
spaced farther apart.

10. Sometimes the ink dries rather slowly; do not try to
hurry by heating it, or by touching it with a blotter except
as before stated. To avoid smearing the drawing when it is
wet, lay your board aside and practice the next exercise on
a piece of waste paper. In this way, no time will be lost
and the work will proceed without interruption.

Figs. S, 9, and 10 illustrate a more rapid use of the pen.
To acquire this rapid stroke and at the same time to keep
the lines uniform in spacing and weight, requires consider-
able practice, but the freedom acquired by such practice is
of the greatest service. To all appearance the lines of these
figures are careless, but they are "carefully" careless; that
is to say, their careless appearance is a matter of study
and does not arise from carelessness in execution. These

10 RENDERING WITH PEN AND BRUSH S2

exercises differ from those that precede, inasmuch as some
of the lines cross one another and produce at these points
darker values. Care should be taken, however, that blots
do not occur in running- a new line over one that is still wet,
with a pen that is overcharged with ink.

In Fig. 8 the long rectangle should be tinted evenly with
a series of lines, such as appear at its right end. It will be
observed that most of the lines are not long enough to
extend across the rectangle and that two sets are necessary
in order to cover the space. When the second series of
strokes is drawn, no attempt should be made to have them
join at the ends of the first ones exactly. It is better to let
them begin between the lower ends of the first set. When the
space is covered, go over the left half to darken it to the value
of central gray by means of strokes of the same weight and
kind. These lines make a very slight angle with the first set.

In Fig. 9 the first value made is middle gray, with a series
of fine strokes somewhat heavier than in Fig. 8 and with
smaller spaces between them. The left half of the space
is then darkened by lines of the same weight but inclined
at a slightly different angle.

Fig. 10 is executed in the same manner as Figs. 8 and 9,
with the exception that greater pressure is used. The right
half should start with a dark gray, and the left half should
grade up to the darkest value of the scale. Hereafter this
tint will be called black; but by this is not meant a solid
black but a line-tinted black, such as is shown at the bottom
of Figs. 6 and 7.

Fig. 11 is composed of slowly and carefully drawn lines
similar to Fig. 5, from which it differs only in value. The
width of the line is obtained by an even pressure. The lines
should be broken wherever necessary, care being taken that
two breaks do not occur in the same place so as to form a
white line across the figure.

Always lift the pen from the paper when the line has been
drawn as far as an unconstrained movement of the fingers
will permit. This should be clone abruptly so that the line
shall not taper off to a point, as is otherwise likely to happen.

§2 RENDERING WITH PEN AND BRUSH 11

Fig. 12 is similar to Fig. 11, except that it is darker and
corresponds with the last tint of the color scale at the bottom
of Figs. 6 and 7. The lines are drawn close together so that
they occasionally blend and produce a ropy effect. This
method of rendering is frequently used in the roofs of
buildings.

Figs. 13 and 14 are drawn with lines of moderate rapidity
and differ only in tone. Fig. 13 is equal to middle gray,
while Fig. 1*4 is dark gray, becoming black at the bottom
where extra pressure is used, causing the lines to unite.
Observe the slight curvature of the lines, which is much
less than that in Fig. 1. The slight changes in the direction
of this curve helps to prevent the mechanical appearance
that would result if the lines were all exactly parallel. This
treatment of lines is frequently employed in the rendering
of shadows under the eaves of houses.

In Fig. 15 is a graded exercise working from black to light
gray and executed in the same manner as explained in con-
nection with Figs. 5, 11, and 12.

Fig. 16 introduces a new quality of line. The strokes are
made from left to right rapidly and close together. They
are very short, of different lengths, and much finer than any
that have yet been drawn. The changes of direction and
upward curvature give them character and variety. Such
lines are useful in representing masses of foliage or trees.

Fig. 17 is identical in character with Fig. IB, except that
some of the lines are drawn from right to left and are
accented on the ends of the strokes. They are also several
tones darker than in Fig. 16, greater pressure being used.

Fig. 18 shows a method of covering a large surface with
a middle gray value. The lines are like those used in
Fig. 16, but are drawn from the top down. They do not
touch at the ends. Fig. 19 shows a tint graded from dark
gray on the left to light gray on the right. This change
in value is produced by a diminution in pressure and an
increase in the spacing of the lines.

Fig. 20 is a problem similar to that in Fig. 10, except that
the lines more nearly approach the perpendicular. The

12 RENDERING WITH PEN AND BRUSH §2

gradation, however, is from black at the top to gray at the
bottom, and is produced by drawing two sets of lines — one
forming an even gray, and the other crossing it at an angle
and forming black.

Figs. 21, 22, and 23 are examples of surface shading with
vertical lines. In Fig. 21 the lines are drawn carefully and
slowly and are slightly curved. If these lines are crinky or
wavy, as shown, it diminishes the mechanical effect. But
this quality of line should not be studied or sought for. It
should come merely from the unsteadiness of the hand when
moving slowly. In Fig. 22 the tint is made up of short lines
whose ends are permitted to join. These lines are drawn
rapidly in order to cover the surface freely. In Fig. 23 is
illustrated a very broad and free way of covering a surface.
It might be called scribbling, as the lines are drawn so
rapidly that sometimes the upward stroke of the pen still
makes a mark on the paper. This is not to be recommended
for general drawing, as it is likely to produce slovenly work,
but it is useful when a sketch must be made in a hurry and
changing values be recorded while they last.

After each of these figures has been drawn, rule two lines
I inch below the upper border line and fV inch apart,
between which carefully pencil in the outlines of the title.
The vertical elements may be strengthened in pencil by
means of the T square and triangles, but the inking should be
done entirely freehand. The date should then be placed in
the lower left-hand corner, and the name and class letter and
number in the lower right-hand corner, after which the border
line should be inked in freehand and the plate cleaned up and
sent to us for criticism.

DEAWINfi PLATE, TITEE: INTRODUCTORY
EXERCISES

11. This plate makes practical use of some of the tones
and values practiced on the preceding plate. The objects
selected are so simple in character that the student should
be able to get duplicates, or objects similar to them, to
render from nature, besides copying the drawing plate.

THE NEW YORK
PUBLIC LIBRARY

ASTOR, LFNOX AN'D
"tLDFN FOUNDATION."

INTRODUCTOR

Fiy. I.

Printed in /lie United States. Copyri, '.,
Entered at Stationers' H

XERCISES

Fiy.5.

>04, by International Textbook Company
mdon. All rights reserved

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§2 RENDERING WITH PEN AND BRUSH 13

This plate is accompanied by a sheet of drawing paper on
which are printed the outlines of the figures that are to be
rendered with pen and ink. The student will find it neces-
sary, however, to practice these figures on separate sheets
of paper in order to gain facility in the handling, and he
should not ink in the outlined figures sent him until
thoroughly satisfied that he can render them satisfactorily.

In his practice work he should carefully copy these figures,
even though his final work be drawn from the actual object.
Working from these will fit him to judge how to render the
others. It will be observed that on the different objects
rendered the lines are drawn in different directions. Differ-
ent tones or values are expressed to indicate differences of
material. The study of these values in the representation
of texture is of vast importance.

Should the student prefer to draw these outlines himself,
and prepare entirely his own drawing sheet, he may proceed
as follows: The drawing plate should be divided within the
border by a vertical line B B through the center of the plate,
and a horizontal line A A 6| inches above the lower border.
A light pencil line should then be drawn around the plate
1 inch within the border, to form the outside lines of the
rectangles in which these figures will be drawn. Two verti-
cal lines should be drawn at C and D, 6 inches from the
left-hand and right-hand border lines, dividing the upper
half of the plate into three rectangles, the lower half being
divided into two rectangles for Figs. 4 and 5. Carefully
draw in outline each of the figures here represented, enlar-
ging it sufficiently to make it bear the same relation to the
drawing plate that it bears to the printed plate. After the
outlines have been satisfactorily drawn, clean the plate
with a soft rubber preparatory to the rendering of the
drawings. The student can proceed with the renderings or
he may do his rendering directly on the outline sheet.

12. Fig. 1 is a paper box presenting simple, plain sur-
faces. The handling is direct and significant. Vertical
surfaces are emphasized by a tint of vertical lines; the

14 RENDERING WITH PEN AND BRUSH §2

oblique surface a is rendered in oblique lines, and the shadow
b is rendered in lines conforming to the slant of the sur-
face on which it falls. The shadow of the box c is made up
of lines that take their direction from the direction of the
light that casts the shadow. Observe that in this simple
rendering three values have been used besides white;
namely, light gray, middle gray, and dark gray. The light
gray is used at the back and inside of the box and on the
flap at a; the middle gray is used in the shadow of the
flap at b and the inside of the box, and the front of the out-
side; and the dark gray, as the cast shadow of the box c.
The cast shadow here, as always, is darker than the
shaded side of the object, which is affected by reflected
light. None of the lines in this rendering are drawn rapidly.
They are applications of the exercises shown on the previous
plate in Figs. 4, 6, and 7. Notice that the lettering on the
box is expressed by values only, no attempt being made to
make it readable. Observe also that in many places the out-
line of the box is omitted, as the shadow is sufficient to
mark the boundary of the surface. This is particularly
observable at J.

13. In Fig. 2 the values are rendered by more rapidly
drawn lines. This gives a snap to the drawing and empha-
sizes the lightness of the material; in other words, gives it
character. The shaded surfaces a, b are not expressed by
one series of lines like those used in Fig. 1, but are made
up of several series of short lines. The rim about the
top of the box is expressed in the shadow a by a slight space
between the two series of lines that make up the shadow.
In the shadow b, the rim is expressed partially by the same
means and partially by touches added to indicate the lower
edge. The introduction of cross-hatchings in the shadow
at c is a simple method of giving the gradation that
shadows possess; namely, of being darkest near the object
that casts the shadow, though sometimes, through the effect
of contrast and reflected light, they are darkest at the outer
edge.

§2 RENDERING WITH PEN AND BRUSH 15

The light, sketchy treatment of the details and the use
of the lightest value in the background, are points to be
carefully noted. The background is rendered in such a
manner as to die off at the edges irregularly, and in the
most unobtrusive manner. The direction of line in the ren-
dered value follows the same laws as in Fig. 1, and in
rendering it the student should bear this in mind. He should
also take pains to indicate the thickness of the basket wher-
ever it appears, as this is another detail that gives the char-
acter of the material it is made of.

14. Fig. 3 is a more difficult problem, in that it exhibits
curved surfaces. This involves the necessity of changing
the direction of the line on different parts of the surface.
The original of the object here shown is a clay vase, rather
crude in form and of a character that did not demand a
treatment that would suggest smoothness or finish. The
lines should be drawn at a moderate rate of speed, but with
care and attention. They are short and form groups that
follow each other about the surface. The darker tones at
a, b, and c are indicated by heavier lines slightly cross-
hatched. At d and on the body of the vase a lighter value
is introduced as the shade meets the light. This adds to
the effect of roundness.

This study will require careful practice, as the rendering
of globular and cylindrical surfaces is not easy. It is not
likely that the student will be entirely successful with his
first attempt nor with his second, but pen rendering is not
easy and perseverance alone will bring about satisfactory
results.

15. Fig. 4 shows a pile of old books. Books always
make interesting subjects for drawing. In making a group
to sketch from, a variety in size and thickness should be
sought. In this illustration not only is the appearance of
old books well carried out, but the different textures of the
different covers is clearly indicated.

In placing these books, their relative sizes have been care-
fully considered. The largest is naturally placed on the

16 RENDERING WITH PEN AND BRUSH §2

bottom, and the angles at which one is placed on the other
differ sufficiently to give the impression that they have been
carelessly laid down after reading. The reading glass gives
a touch of interest and suggests that perhaps the books have
been read by an old person. These details are of impor-
tance. They convey an idea of something beyond the
illustration and help the picture to tell a story.

The values in this study range from white to black; the
direction of the lines corresponds to the direction of the
surfaces. The lines used in rendering the books are all
slowly drawn. The slow and irregular line serves very well
in the expression of the warped and uneven old covers and
the edges of the leaves. In the reading glass a more regular
touch is needed to give the effect of smoothness to the glass
and to the metal rim and ebony handle. The lines are more
crisp and decisive than those on the books, and indicate the
difference in the texture of the material. Note how the light
edges on the back of the books a, b are shown by a break
between the series of lines that render the backs and tops.
A similar treatment occurs in the handle of the reading
glass at c. In the back of the book b the addition of lines
drawn between the first series darkens the value at the right
places to express the modeling. The shadows, both of the
books and of the glass, are drawn briskly with light, rapid
lines. Observe that, while the leaves on the ends of the
books are indicated by a series of wavy, parallel lines, the
thickness of the covers is expressed by a series of short,
vertical lines in the direction of that thickness.

Examine this drawing carefully and observe that a hard
outline is not introduced at any point where it is unneces-
sary. The little, uppermost book is outlined against the one
below it by the stopping of the deep tone that indicates the
cover of the latter, and the back of the second book is pro-
filed against the cover of the bottom book by the meeting of
the tones rather than by a hard line. The breadth of this
study and the completeness of its effect show the advantage
of avoiding fine lines, except where necessary to express
smooth surfaces.

§2 RENDERING WITH PEN AND BRUSH 17

16. Fig. 5 is a group from the garden, consisting of
curved surfaces rendered with carefully drawn lines char-
acteristic of the surfaces they express. There are no deep
tones on either the water pot or the flower pots. The out-
lines of the objects themselves are so distinct as to tell what
they are, and no heavy shading is required to indicate their
curvature. Observe, however, that the curved handle of the
water pot is shaded with lines that follow its curve, and that
the sides are rendered with vertical lines carefully and evenly
drawn. In the shade these lines stop just below the top to
indicate the rim, or ring, that is turned about it, while a
slight shading under this ring expresses it in the high light.
The inside of the water pot is rendered with a darker tone,
inasmuch as it is naturally much shielded from the light.
The flower pots are simply rendered with lines, parallel to
their tops, rapidly and crudely drawn in harmony with the
crude material of which they are made.

DRAWING PLATE, TITLE: DETAILS AND
ACCESSORIES

17. This plate contains a series of what might be called
practical problems. Every element on it is likely at some
time to become an element in the drawing or rendering of
some illustration or picture. No difficulty should be experi-
enced in following the instructions and presenting a per-
fectly satisfactory drawing. Each surface should be carefully
studied in order that the values of the different textures may
be properly rendered.

For the purpose of practice, the figures on this plate should
be carefully laid out, or traced, and transferred, according to
the outlines on the outline sheet. Although many parts
of the finished drawing appear freely and carelessly rendered,
the original pencil sketch is very carefully outlined in all its
detail before the rendering is commenced. By this means
the draftsman always has a definite position for his lines,
and each line can be made to express a separate detail. A
drawing may look sketchy and free when the pencil lines are

18 RENDERING WITH PEN AND BRUSH §2

erased, but it can never appear satisfactorily so unless the
pencil sketch has been carefully executed. The outline
drawings accompanying this plate show how careful one
must be in making his preparatory sketch. At the same
time his finished renderings on the drawing plate show how
free the results from these careful preliminaries can be made
to appear.

Do not make the mistake that many beginners do, that
freedom, or sketchiness, in rendering a drawing implies
that it was not carefully drawn in the beginning. The
pencil work must be executed with the utmost care to
warrant freedom in the rendering. While as has been said
"Nature abhors an outline," and while it is advisable to use
in pen work as little outline as possible, it is all the more
necessary that the outline shall be clear and definite in the
pencil drawing in order to show just where to put the
shadows that are to express it in the rendering.

It will be best not to sketch in pencil more than two or
three of the figures on this sheet at one time, before an
attempt is made to render the drawings. First, draw the
border line in pencil, and then by a vertical line and a
horizontal line divide the plate into quarters. The location
of the individual figures in these four parts can then be made
by freehand subdivisions.

The first four figures on this plate are representations of
roof textures, and care must be exercised not to overdo the
rendering, or the drawing will lose that very characteristic
that should be obtained; namely, the suggestion of the
material. This depends as much on the way the pen is
handled as on the kind of line that is drawn. Figs. 1, 2,
and ?> show roofs of old cottages in England, while Fig. 4 is
a tile roof in Venice.

1 8. In Fig. 1 the roofing material is a red tile and is
indicated in a general way by making the value of the roof
tone a light gray. The oldness of the house is shown by
the wavering of the lines that show the courses of the tiling.
That some of the tiles have loosened and others become

THE NEW YORK
PUBLIC LIBRARY

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TIL DEN FOUNDATIONS'
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Printed in the United States. Copytii
Entered at Stationers' //<

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§2 RENDERING WITH PEN AND BRUSH 19

dislocated entirely or discolored by moss, is suggested by
patches of deeper shade at irregular intervals. The over-
lapping of the tile courses is indicated by the character of
the outline c. Compare with the roof lines the lighter lines
used to indicate the weather boards on the building at the
left side b. Note how carefully, and yet sketchily, the
distant ends of the weather boards are touched in to
indicate that one board laps over another. Note that the
lines of these boards are not carried entirely across the house,
yet they convey to the observer a certainty that the material
continues in the same manner where the paper is left
untouched. Diminishing this value on the end of the
building to a dead white where the roof overhangs, greatly
helps the general effect of the drawing.

The shadow of the overhanging roof d is drawn with a
series of brisk lines, slightly accented at the bottom in order
to express the abruptness with which the shadow stops and
by the contrast, to give the feeling of sunlight. The direc-
tion of these lines suggests the direction in which the sunlight
falls. Care must be exercised to keep this shadow in proper
contrast with the roof above it. The value of the shadow
diminishes as it becomes more distant; this increases the
effect of perspective. The dark part of the shadow under
the darkest part of the roof is brought into strong contrast
with the side of the house that is left white. The greatest
contrasts are those at the angle of the house that is nearest
to us and gives an appearance of recession in the distance.

To indicate all the lines of the windows would not only
be practically impossible but decidedly uninteresting. The
details have simply been suggested, and the shadow that
would naturally exist within the entire window on the end
of the house has been limited on the upper side to prevent
the introduction of a black spot in this light surface, which
would materially affect the composition.

In Figs. 5 to 9 a more detailed rendering of windows is
given, because in these the entire drawing consists in the
representation of a window, whereas in Fig. 1 the window
is only a portion of the whole building. In Figs. 5 to 9,

20 RENDERING WITH PEN AND BRUSH §2

the drawing of the shadows is the principal means of bring-
ing out the forms; but in Fig. 1 less shadow was required, and
the introduction of shadows indicating sash and muntins gives
all the effect that is necessary.

At e a small mass of foliage without detail is introduced
simply to give balance to the drawing and offset the dark
masses at the right-hand side. The texture of this foliage
is such that there is no doubt whatever as to its material,
and it is rendered with a series of lines similar to Figs. 16
and 17 on the plate entitled Preliminary Pen Practice. In
drawing foliage, the general character of the edges, or
outline, should claim the first attention; the next aim should
be to get the value in tone by means of free, loose strokes,
which in a general way should follow the direction of the
leaf masses. Note throughout all these drawings how the
lines are occasionally broken in order to give the effect of
light and transparency.

19. The thatched roof in Fig. 2 presents an entirely
different problem. Thatch is a fascinating texture to indicate
and is well suited to the pen. The left side is in shadow
and is therefore covered with a light-gray value of short
lines broken to show the different layers of straw. The
right side is in full light, and is therefore left white with
only sufficient shading to indicate that this, too, is. thatched.
These irregular indications also suggest the unevenness of
the surface.

The character of the lines used in the rendering of this roof
is radically different from that in the tile roof. The rather
fine and loosely drawn lines admirably suggest the straw in
the thatch. On the shadow side of the roof a, the over-
lapping courses of straw are indicated by the overlapping
and accented ends of the lines.

On the small roof b we again have a tile texture. The
chimney, however, being built partly of brick and partly of
stone, introduces still another texture. On the light side
little detail is attempted, only an occasional touch indicative
of the irregular forms of which it is composed. On the

§2 RENDERING WITH PEN AND BRUSH 21

shade side, however, considerable attention is given to the
individual bricks.

While, as has been said, the drawing of individual bricks
is not necessary to indicate a brick wall, still the dark tone
on the shadow side of the chimney and wall may be rendered
quite as well by a series of partially rectangular forms as by
a' series of long, straight lines. These forms, therefore, serve
a double purpose — that of giving texture to the surface, and
that of representing it in its proper tone. The principles of
building construction must be observed in the rendering, and
the joints between the bricks must break alternately. In
good practice no brick joints come directly over the ones
immediately below.

At c the chimney is clearly shown to be of small stones.
This is clearly indicated by the rounded edges and irregular
outlines. At d the material is plaster, shown simply as a
flat value between the vertical and horizontal lines of the
framing. The lines forming the shadow of the eaves on
the tile roof conform in direction to the slope of the roof,
while those on the vertical side of the house at e are vertical.

What was said in connection with the foliage of Fig. 1
applies equally well in the rendering of the small bit of vine
at the right of Fig. 2. This foliage is of no importance
except to balance the picture by introducing a small, dark
value in a large area of light. It prevents the picture
appearing one-sided.

20. In Fig. 3 is a tile roof that differs in treatment from
Fig. 1 and gives the effect of a nearer view. The heavy
lines used on the roofs a, b are made with slow strokes of
considerable pressure. They present an effect of shadows,
of courses of tile, which taken together give an agreeable
dark value to the roof. Careful attention should be given
the treatment of the stone blocks at the corner c and also
to the suggestion of the wedge-shaped stones around the
window (/. None of these details is indicated sharply and
clearly, yet an improper rendering of the direction of these
lines, slight though it may be, would be a fault in the

22 RENDERING WITH PEN AND BRUSH §2

drawing. One of the greatest difficulties of successful pen
rendering is to know where to stop in the rendering of the
characteristic details, and at the same time to give careful
and sympathetic treatment to them.

In giving value to the stonework in shadow, the texture of
the stone has been rendered by free, curving lines, and
at the left of the rectangular window by a few irregular
dots. But this method should be employed sparingly. The
beginner should study magazine illustrations by well-known
artists and observe how skilfully this dotting is sometimes
used. It is introduced here simply to prevent the wall
beyond the rectangular window from being an absolute white
like the value on the end of the window. This window
has lozenge-shaped panes; these are rendered black, the
lead work being left white. In the pencil sketch that the
student prepares for this drawing, the muntins must be
drawn in, but the pen work concerns itself only with the
values; the pencil lines are ignored except as limitations to
the black panes.

21. The pencil sketch of Fig. 4 will show only the lines
of the tiles, but the pen work by semicircular strokes will
suggest the individual tiles. The introduction of these
semicircular strokes is in conformity with the rendering
of the flower pots in the plate entitled Introductory Exer-
cises; the line of the shading follows as closely as possible
the general outline of the object shaded. On the left side
of the roof the details of the tile are not so fully shown,
as, owing to a foreshortening, they are not so clearly seen,
and the forms in this distant roof are inferred from the
nearer one. As the left side of the roof approaches the hip
at the corner, the rendering of detail is gradually omitted,
leaving the value white. This accidental light emphasizes
the effect in the drawing, in the same manner that the
omission of the lines of the clapboards emphasized the
drawing of Fig. 1. There is no marking on the side of
the house to indicate it as stone, brick, or shingle, and
it is safe to assume that it is of plaster or other plain

S2 RENDERING WITH PEN AND BRUSH 23

material. Were it built of large blocks of stone, they would
be indicated by suggestions of the joints.

22. These few examples of roof rendering are sufficient
to suggest modes of treatment for these and other textures
whenever they appear. In the rendering of an old shingle
roof the treatment would not be greatly different from that
of Fig. 1. If the house were a new one, the lines would be
more regular. A slate roof would require a still closer
treatment in parallel lines, value being there the main con-
sideration. Occasionally, all thought of texture may be laid
aside in rendering a roof, especially in the case of the more
distant parts. Such roofs may be rendered by a flat tone,
the lines of which are generally in an oblique direction.

In rendering a building of any kind, about the first con-
sideration is to determine where to place large masses of light
and shade. It usually happens that the roofs present the best
opportunity for this, coming as they do against the sky,
which is generally left white. If the roof is of such a
material or character that it is desired to leave it very light,
it will sometimes be necessary to give the sky a cloudy effect,
or better still to introduce behind the roof line a mass of
foliage. A cloudy sky should generally be avoided in the
rendering of an architectural subject.

In the rendering of all windows, small, dark spots should
be introduced to avoid the appearance of desolation likely
to arise from drawing them as black holes. Windows
appear as black masses only when all of the glass is
destroyed. When this is not the case the sunlight will play
on the glass and muntins and give a varied effect. The
texture of the glass can be suggested by introducing spots
of light or of shade, or when the drawing is large, by show-
ing dimly through the glass the curtains or other details
inside. The mechanical elaboration of the window frame or
sash muntins must be avoided if a total effect of sketchiness
is desired. The true relations of light and shade are missed
if too much attention is given to the accurate rendering
of details.

24 RENDERING WITH PEN AND BRUSH §2

23. In Figs. 5 and 6 are shown two windows that are
characteristic of the ordinary type in American wooden
houses. Their rendering is of a character consistent with
the usual architectural drawing and expresses all of the
details necessary for such work. Compare the different
methods of rendering the blinds in Figs. 5 and 6 — the first
with the styles or side strips of the blinds left in white and
profiled against the house by the shadow for an outline,
and the second with the styles left black and the slats indi-
cated by short, black lines. In Fig. 5 the left-hand and
lower boundary line of the blind a is not shown but is indi-
cated by the shadow cast against the house. A similar
treatment is given the sill, but the blind b is outlined, except
at the bottom where the shadow is shown.

This difference of treatment of blinds on the same win-
dow would at first appear unreasonable, but it should be
borne in mind that we are not endeavoring to represent
everything we can see but are concerning ourselves with the
effect of the window as a whole. If the left-hand shadow of
the blind b were drawn in, it would be found to interfere
with the representation of the window sash, and the result
would be lacking in clearness. Therefore, this shadow is
omitted and merely the lower shadow that the blind makes
against the house is introduced. These details must con-
stantly be considered in choosing methods of expression.

It is generally advisable to define the outer sash of a win-
dow somewhat sharply. This is best done by indicating the
shadows rather than the objects that cast them; Figs. 5 and 6
are good examples of this. The left and lower portions are
defined by narrow, dark lines of shadow. In the lower half of
these windows, the glass is shown dark, while in Fig. 5 the
muntins remain light. In Fig. 6 there is no sash in the
lower half of the window, and in order to prevent a square,
black hole, a curtain is introduced hanging below the upper
sash. In this figure, the shadows that would have been cast
by the blinds have been entirely omitted, because the blinds
themselves are so dark that the shadow would be confused
with them.

§2 RENDERING WITH PEN AND BRUSH 25

The three windows shown in Fig. 7 are such as are usually
seen in brick buildings. The treatment of each is slightly
varied from that of its neighbor, but as a whole they present
a uniform appearance and are plainly of the same type. In
the rendering of a modern business building we usually have
a large number of windows to represent, and this presents a
difficult problem. In form each window is a repetition of
the others, but the light and shade should vary. In Fig. 7
the direction of the light is assumed to be the same as in
Figs. 5 and 6.

The greatest difference between the windows of a frame
house and those of a brick or stone building is the difference
in the thickness of the walls. Study carefully the treatment
of the soffit, or under side of the lintel above, and the reveal
at the side of each window. It is a good rule never to
introduce more than one large, dark spot into a window,
and as the three windows are here treated together, only
one considerable spot has been used in the entire group.
This occurs in the lower part of a; a lesser spot is intro-
duced in bt while to vary the effect the medium-sized dark
spot used in c occurs in the upper part. The half tones are
introduced into each of the windows to soften the effect of
the spot and add to the glassy appearance.

Fig. 8 shows a more ornamental type of window. There is
nothing here essentially different from the previous examples
except the careful suggestion of ornamental detail by the
drawing of the shadows. Outline in the details has been
avoided as much as possible, except in the window frame
where some of the horizontal elements are shown in the upper
part. Here the lower panes are shown dark, but they come so
close together that they appear in composition as one spot.

The triple window in Fig. 9 is from an English country
house. Diamond-shaped panes set in lead are characteristic
of this architecture, and the way to render them has been
spoken of in connection with Fig. 3. Here, however, the
treatment is more complicated. Note that the effect of the
window is sometimes introduced by making the panes black,
and in other parts the pane is left white and the lead work

26 RENDERING WITH PEN AND BRUSH §2

drawn in. This gives variety and expresses both the trans-
parency of the glass and the reflection of the sunlight from
it. Under the foliage, in places, the deep shadow obscures
all the details. The mullions between the windows must be
suggested very slightly but not carelessly. Sketchy as this
detail appears, it requires more careful pencil drawing than
any of the previous examples.

Figs. 10 and 11 are entrances to New England houses.
The suggestive treatment of panels in Fig. 10 should be
noted, and also the. free lines used in outlining the vine.
Little of the vine is expressed, except on its shadow side
where an even tone indicates its under surface. In this
sketch the light falls from a different direction than in the
previous ones. In Fig. 11 the shadow is shown by cross-
hatched lines immediately under the roof. This is the only
case in this plate where cross-hatching has been used for a
shadow, but here the depth of the shadow and the projection
of the roof are best rendered in this manner. The shadows
on the columns and other architectural details are rendered
as simply as possible.

24. In architectural rendering it is necessary to introduce
various accessories in order to break the monotony of line
that is apt to occur, and to add life and interest to the
subject. The principal ones are: masses of foliage, such
as trees, shrubs, and vines; horses and carriages; and
figures, according to the location and surroundings of the
object represented.

Figs. 12 to 15 are illustrations of typical foliage. In the
introduction of tree forms, there are two important consider-
ations: first, the determination of sizes, what general shapes,
and what values should be used in the composition in order to
establish a balance and maintain a rhythm, and at the same
time preserve harmony between the appearance of the
building and the forms of the masses with which it is
surrounded; second, it is important to introduce only such
types of growth as would naturally be found in the locality
of the building.

§2 RENDERING WITH PEN AND BRUSH 27

If the drawing is from a photograph of a building that

already exists, some minor objects may be changed in form.

It is quite proper to enlarge or curtail or vary the outline of

a tree or vine. Such changes would not falsify the general

appearance. Neither need one feel bound by the actual

values indicated in a photograph. As a matter of fact, a

photograph seldom renders values with any degree of

accuracy. The high lights are usually brighter and the

shadows deeper and more opaque than they appear in

,1 nature. They need to be adjusted when repro-

/ j duced in pen-and-ink rendering.

f '{ If the building is not yet erected, much more

< - I freedom may be used and the choice of such

S J accessories as shrubbery, trees, etc. may be gov-

1 >J ) erned entirely by good taste.

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Fig. 2

In Fig. 12 is a very light treatment suggestive of the
upper part of a group of poplar trees, the lower part being
hidden by low masses of foliage. The character of the
poplar is so marked that it cannot be mistaken if only the
outline is well indicated. This is characteristic of a number
of trees, as is shown in Figs. 2 to 5 of the text. However,
where trees grow near together or are seen at a distance in
masses, it is not easy to distinguish the different kinds.

In Fig. 2 of the text is shown the general character of the
outline of the poplar as it should be drawn in pencil before
the rendering shown on Fig. 12 of the drawing plate is
attempted, while in Fig. 3 of the text is the characteristic

RENDERING WITH PEN AND BRUSH

§2

outline of the apple tree. The oak shown in Fig. 4 and the
American elm shown in Fig. 5 of the text are further examples,

and their characteris-
tics should be studied
by the pen draftsman
if he would properly
indicate them.

In rendering these
trees the outline should
be drawn in pencil and
not inked. The mass
of foliage, if the trees
? are distant and unim-
b portant, should then be
laid in in an even tone,
the lines of the pen
running as nearly as
possible in the direc-
tion of the lines of the foliage; but where the trees are
nearer and a more careful rendering is desirable, the tones
can be varied, as in Fig. 12
of the drawing plate, and
strong, high lights intro-
duced to give life to the
composition.

In Fig. 13 is shown a
mass of foliage that might (.
be used as a background
at the side of a house, or
in some place where a dark J / ^ /
spot is required in the com- v y
position. In Fig. 12, the
color values of the trees
are not given and no out-
lines are used; only the
shadows are touched in by

the use of short lines that help to give the effect of leaves.
The absence of outlines gives the effect of air and sunlight,

§2 RENDERING WITH PEN AND BRUSH 29

for the constant moving; in nature prevents our seeing any
distinct outline. In Fig. 13 an outline is shown, but note
how the effect of the dark mass is softened by the addition
of the finer and very irregular lines. In this case the atmos-
pheric effect is helped by the outer lines, for if the broad,
dark strokes that make up the strong value of the trees were
left at the edges the result would be hard and crude. Where
a dark tree appears against the sky the edges appear lighter
than the mass of the tree. Touching the edges of the dark
masses with lighter tones or outlines is an attempt to sug-
gest what is true in nature.

In Fig. 14 is shown a loose and free treatment often needed
in the suggestions of foreground study. There are infre-
quent occasions when the immediate foreground may require
a detailed representation of trees, at which time a few should
be carefully drawn. One or two well-defined and shaded
leaves backed by several small masses of shadow will express
much more than a number of poorly rendered details.

Fig. 15 is a young maple tree represented entirely in
shadow. The trunk should be drawn with great care, giving
a proper sense of strength and vigor. Note the gradual
diminution of its size as it leaves the ground, so that it is
smallest immediately under the burst of the foliage. All
saplings are of this general type — elms as well as maples.
These are appropriate trees to introduce into the foreground
of a building in a newly laid district. The young tree is in
harmony with the development of a new or young district,
and the small mass of foliage at the top of the tree does not
interfere materially with the view of the structure.

25. It is necessary to study nature constantly. Make
sketches from photographs, or from actual trees, and practice
in the rendering of these accessories. A collection of these
sketches is part of the stock in trade of every draftsman and
every illustrator. In sketching from nature always look for
large masses and characteristic lines, as this will give a free-
dom of rendering and touch. Sketch any object that interests
you; do not imagine that you can draw it from memory when

30 RENDERING WITH PEN AND BRUSH §2

wanted. A visit to any artist's studio will convince you that
none of his illustrations or pictures are made from memory.
Thousands of sketches and bits of detail are recorded by
him from time to time to be laid out as notes from which to
build up his finished study.

There should always be more freedom and lightness of
touch in handling- natural forms than in handling architec-
tural forms. The contrast gives interest to the picture.
The addition of figures adds interest and serves also to
give scale to the other objects, because one compares
heights to the size of persons; but a good picture may
easily be spoiled by the introduction of badly drawn or
badly placed figures. In other words, a good composition
can be spoiled by introducing figures that destroy its effects.
In the case of trees and foliage, or of people, they should be
such as would be found in the neighborhood of the buildings
shown. Of course, almost any kind of a person might happen
to be in front of any building, but that is not considering
harmonious composition. Introduce only such individuals as
would be likely to be seen there. A procession of soldiers
would not be a proper element to introduce into the fore-
ground of the drawing of an old monastery, any more than
a procession of monks in the drawing of an armory. In the
same manner, Fig. 17 would not be proper in connection
with the old English cottage. In the composition called
An American Country House, it would not do to introduce a
street sweeper, such as is shown in Fig. 21, and which
would take its place quite appropriately in connection with
a city building.

In introducing figures in a picture, composition should
always be the first consideration. Figures must always be
considered as spots of value and must be so placed that the
balance of the picture will not be destroyed.

26. The laws of perspective must be kept constantly in
mind, as a figure out of scale will destroy the effect of the
entire composition. A person of average height standing
on a street level, will find that the heads of the people about

§2

RENDERING WITH PEN AND BRUSH

him — whether near by or far away — will appear at about
the same level as his own. The more distant figures appear
smaller than those near by, but the diminution in height is
entirely at the foot-end. Their heads are always on a level
with one another, as shown in Fig. 6 of the text.

Figures should appear in natural attitudes when grouped
about a building, and when standing still should be engaged

Fig. fi

in conversation. At least some excuse for their standing
still should be obvious; otherwise, they will appear like
dolls. The majority of figures that we see outdoors are
moving, and snap-shot photographs will give a series of them.

27. Figs. 16 to 24 suggest the kinds of figures that will
appear most useful; they also show the methods of render-
ing such figures. No small details are shown. Features
are simply suggested or indicated, and in one or two cases

32 RENDERING WITH PEN AND BRUSH §2

not indicated at all. Only in Fig. 16 are such details as
buttons indicated, and in this case they are necessary, as the
large brass buttons on the coachman's coat are suggestive
of his character. In sketching figures, either from nature
or from photographs, work only for the long lines and
the larger forms.

The key to the proportioning of the figure is the head.
The first question to be settled is the number of heads in
height to be given a subject. The size of the human head
varies but slightly in different individuals, and there is less
growth of the head from infancy to adulthood than in any
other part of the body. In adults the length of the head
constitutes from one-sixth to one-eighth of the whole height
of the person. A figure but six heads high looks short, as
shown, for example, by the woman in Fig. 16 of the plate,
where the head is about one-sixth of the whole height. The
actual height of the coachman, exclusive of his silk hat, is
about that of the woman, but he gives the impression of
being much taller. His head, allowing for the part covered
by the hat, is about one-seventh of the total height.

Fig. 17 gives the impression of being a tall woman, and
you will find her to be about seven heads in height. Com-
pare the sizes of the heads in Fig. 22. While they are not
very different in size, the little girl is about five and one-half
heads in height, and the woman is nearer eight heads, which
is very tall. A figure should never be made over eight heads
in height, unless it is desired to give the appearance of
unusual height to the person so represented.

Care should be exercised in sketching figures to avoid the
appearance of their toppling over. If a figure is standing
so that it is vertical, a line should be drawn from head
to foot which should show that the center of gravity is over
the center of support. In drawing the head, consider it as an
oval. Carefully mark the position of such parts as shoulders,
elbows, waist, and hips. Refer the length of the arms to a
point half way between the top of the head and the base of
the feet. It will be found that the arm hanging by the side
will fall below this center point.

§2

RENDERING WITH PEN AND BRUSH

The study of Fig. 7 of the text will help in the sketching
of figures, where the heights in each case are divided into
eight heads by the vertical line marked as shown. As figures
recede into the distance, less and less of the detail appears,
as will be observed in Fig. 19 of the drawing plate, where
scarcely more than a few spots of light and shadow are indi-
cated. While Figs. 16, 17, 18, 21, and 23 give some indica-
tions of color as well as texture, the other figures show hardly
anything more than shadows, although in Fig. 22 the hair and
stockings of the little girl and the hair of the woman are
given a slight color value. In Figs. 18, 20, 22, and 24 the
cast shadows are shown on the ground. In the others little

V- )

Fig. 7

of the light and shade is indicated, the color values giving
the principal effect. This is in accordance with the prin-
ciples observed in the shading of the girl in Figs. 1 and 2 of
Elements of Pen-and-ink Rendering.

While figures require as accurate drawing as any part of the
picture, they must be rendered with a free, elastic touch;
the T square and triangles are of no use here. The aim of
the artist is to express life — the power to move — a contrast
to the immobility of the architecture, with which they are
often used as accessories.

In drawing the figures, the student may vary them to suit
his fancy, taking his subjects from photographs or from

34 RENDERING WITH PEN AND BRUSH §2

nature; but care should be exercised to follow the principles
herein set down and to work as closely as possible in accord-
ance with the foregoing' instructions. The title may then be
drawn at the top of the plate as before, and the name, date,
and class letter and number inserted in their usual places.

DRAWING PLATE, TITLE: TYPICAL SUBJECTS

28. The work on this plate is devoted to four subjects,
varying in character and illustrating the principles of compo-
sition and technique that have been heretofore set forth.
The two upper studies, entitled In New England and In Old
England, are drawn within rectangles 5 inches wide by
7 inches long, and set li inches below the upper border line
and 1 inch from the side border lines. These rectangles
may be drawn with the T square, but should be inked in
freehand.

An outline drawing of the figures on this plate is shown
on a separate sheet, and before he commences his rendering
the student should copy it on his drawing plate. It is
desired that he do this with the greatest care, for the pencil
rendering must be most carefully executed in order to secure
a satisfactory pen rendering.

The outlines of the New England farmhouse should be
sketched in accordance with the details given on the outline
plate, care being taken that the lines converge properly.
In rendering this drawing, note that the principal dark mass
of the foliage is at a, and is on the left and a little below the
center of the picture. This is reenforced or strengthened
by a larger mass of half tone that forms the end of the
house. In rendering this half tone, attention should be
given to the texture of the house; that is, the lines forming
the half tone should be used to suggest the siding, or clap-
boards. This large half-tone surface attracts the eye first
after the mass of dark at a, and the balance of the composi-
tion is maintained by the introduction of another small dark
spot at b and by the half tone connecting the two spots.
The spot at b is reenforced by the light gray of the sky.

THE NEW YORK

Pu^ic uB?xARY

TILDE
H

TYP n C AJL -

I /N NEW ENGUAND

■4, '" '

,""#

R.OTHEMBUR.Q

Printed in the United States. Copy]
Entered at Stationers'

SUBJECTS

LIBRARY MALDE-N MA//

p.-

Lwr:x

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~JL

i '"' '

■««.$!

'4, ft.y International Textbook Company
idon. All rights reserved

THE NEW YORK
PUBLIC LIBRARY

astor, r.r.K^x AND

TIL-DEN FOUNDATIONS
R L

§2 RENDERING WITH PEN AND BRUSH 35

The result of all of which is that the center of balance of all
these spots of value falls about the center of the picture.

In this drawing' five values are used, including white and
black. These give a brilliancy of effect that is entirely free
from harshness of contrast. The textures are in no way
different from those practiced on previous plates. The sky
as rendered here is an exception to what is generally con-
sidered good practice, for a tone is not advisable on what
should appear to be the lightest part of the composition. In
this case, however, the darkening of the sky is permissible
in order to set off the roof and to form a background for
that part of the composition, and to assist the perspective.
The clapboards on the front of the house are only very faintly
suggested, so as to give the idea of full sunlight on this side.
The same treatment is given to the shingles on the roof,
although no doubt is left as to the fact that the roof is
shingled. A few touches are employed in the foreground
to indicate long grass growing among the rocks, but no
attempt has been made to render this in any detail.

Much can be learned from this drawing by studying the
manner in which the darker parts of the picture have been
connected with one another. The front of the house, being
light, attracts the eye to the center of the picture, and this
whiteness is further emphasized by contrast with the dark
masses of foliage. The windows are merely indicated so as
to prevent their cutting up the side of the house. The brick
chimney is treated with only sufficient detail to show that it
is brick. This method helps to convey the impression of
oldness, which is still further intensified by the heavy growth
of foliage, grass, and weeds.

29. In Fig. 2 is an old English farmhouse with thatched
roof and timber construction, which shows through the brick
filling on the end. The most difficult thing to render in this
composition would be the foliage, but if the figure is care-
fully drawn in pencil after the model shown in the outline
plate, the entire attention can be devoted to the rendering, as
the drawing will have been completed in pencil beforehand.

86 RENDERING WITH PEN AND BRUSH §2

In every case of pen rendering the drawing must be accu-
rately worked out with pencil. Observe how much more
complete are the text illustrations for the figures of this plate
than are the finished renderings of the figures on the drawing
plate. The window openings, foliage outlines, and timber-
work details are as carefully indicated in the text illustrations
as though the drawing were to be finished with the accuracy
of a photograph, but in the rendering a large percentage of
these details is discarded. It is necessary, however, to have
them before us when we start, in order to properly select those
that are to be emphasized and those that are to be erased.

The effect of the dark mass at a against the sky is not
softened by finer lines, but at the edge a fine line is used
to relieve the abruptness of the heavier strokes. In sketch-
ing foliage in this manner, the roundness of the masses and
the appearance of thickness must be suggested without any
attempt to indicate the individual leaves. In the mass of
foliage shown at b, the lines are much finer and more open
than the ones used to indicate the nearer masses. This
handling softens the effect and gives distance, or perspective,
to the picture. The mass of foliage at a forms the principal
dark spot of the composition and is contrasted against the
light roof of the cottage so as to throw the latter into prom-
inence. The harshness of this dark spot is relieved by
blending it into the half tone of the nearer foliage, as well
as by the middle tone indicated on the end of the cottage.

The values at the right of the picture are connected to
those at the left by the small mass or line of shrubbery
running along the fence and wall. The path c leads the eye
from the lower left-hand corner of the picture through the
gateway to the house. If this path or the foreground about
it were carefully and elaborately detailed it would divert
attention from the building, which in reality forms the center
of attraction. The bulk of the cottage surface being white,
this path also serves to connect the high lights; it should
always be remembered that the various dark masses or the
light masses should be connected together in order to give
unity to the composition.

§2 RENDERING WITH PEN AND BRUSH 37

The treatment of the chimneys is here even less suggest-
ive of brickwork than in the previous example, and in the
end of the cottage between the timber beams the brickwork
has been indicated in a broad and suggestive manner with-
out expressing too much detail. The lines of the shadows
under the eaves should be slowly and carefully drawn and
accented at their lower ends so that they run together.
These shadows do not end in an even line, but express by
their uneven terminations the character of the thatch that
casts them. The thatch on the roof is indicated by the fewest
possible lines, but along the eaves and the gable it is so
rendered as to convey the impression of great thickness. It
will be observed that the extreme outside and corners of
this picture have not been filled with any details. This
method of treatment is called vignetting; it is used to keep
the eye at the center of attraction.

One of the greatest difficulties in rendering a drawing
is to tell when to stop. Experience only seems to advise
the artist as to when he has worked enough, but the student
should remember that as soon as the effect he has desired
has been obtained, the picture is finished and every other
line is unnecessary. It should be borne in mind also that
the rendering of detail should be as sparingly used as pos-
sible. A well-rendered drawing, from a technical stand-
point, is one in which the effect has been obtained with the
fewest lines.

30. Fig. 3 is a view in the streets of the medieval town
of Rothenberg, Germany. This requires very careful pencil
drawing, according to details given in the outline plate.
It is quite simple to render in pen and ink, as the tones are
not complicated nor greatly varied. Here the darkest spot
in the picture is near the center, a point to which the lines
of the street naturally lead the eye. It is the shadow
between the arch and is much smaller than the leading dark
spots of Figs. 1 and 2. The comparatively large areas of
half tones are so disposed that they practically surround the
central part of the picture. This disposition tends to direct

38 RENDERING WITH PEN AND BRUSH §2

the eye to the center of the picture quite as much as does
the dark shadow surrounded by an area of light. The half
tones on the left of the picture are formed by the shade side
of the buildings, those on the right by the roofs. These
roofs are rendered in simple half tones without any attempt
to indicate their materials. They are probably tile, but
the quaintness of the village street is so interesting in itself
that one is satisfied without indications of the detail of either
the roofs or side walls, except where it is necessary to give
variety or to indicate structure, such as the arch stones
suggest.

On the right of the picture, the combination of the figures
in the foreground, the slight suggestion of a vine over
the doorway, and the shadow of the eaves serve to break
up the wide area of light and balance the composition nicely
about the center. The introduction of these figures at this
particular spot in the picture is of interest from the point of
view of composition, and the small dark spot in one of the
figures is interesting as showing how variety can be obtained
by very simple methods.

The large area of light on the right-hand building needs
a dark spot in the lower right-hand corner in order to main-
tain the balance, and the introduction of this group of
figures with the particular values that they possess, is an
excellent illustration of the right and proper use of figures
as accessories. Simple and suggestive as the outlines of
these figures are, their costumes are in perfect harmony
with the quaint character of the place.

This drawing is so small that the treatment of the win-
dows is of the crudest and most suggestive character, but
the study of windows on the previous plate will show how
to render them and to indicate the blinds, etc. that form
prominent dark spots on the face of the building. Observe
how slightly the buildings beyond the archway are indi-
cated, and be careful not to give them too much prominence.

The face of the clock in the picture is carefully repre-
sented; not carefully detailed, but carefully suggested. No
particular numerals are indicated and the hands are scarcely

S2 RENDERING WITH PEN AND BRUSH 39

more than hinted at, but one can easily see that it is twenty-
minutes after ten. This is of no importance whatever to
the drawing, but it shows how much can be conveyed with a
very few strokes.

In rendering this drawing, the student should be careful
to keep his lines light and steady, and should be even
more careful than in the previous cases not to overdo the
rendering.

31. Fig. 4 is a perspective rendering of the Public
Library at Maiden, Mass. This presents the character of
the average architectural problem in pen-and-ink drawing.
Here is a stone building with a slate roof and accessory
foliage to be rendered so that the material shall be indi-
cated without being shown in detail. The use of lines sug-
gestive of stonework or brickwork, as in Figs. 1 and 2,
would give the appearance of age or antiquity, which is to
be avoided. Neat, crisp strokes must be used, and the
figures introduced must have an up-to-date appearance.
Those used in the last example would be greatly out of
place. Figures must not interfere with the lines of the
building itself, but at the same time they must balance
the composition. The rendering of the roof has been con-
fined to the simple representation of a value by means of
sharp, crisp lines corresponding in direction to the courses
of slate with which it is covered. The windows and the
arches of the porch require the greatest care. The former,
so as to suggest the reveals, or thickness of the walls, and
the latter to show the soffits of the arches and the deep
shadow cast by them on the porch. Observe, in comoarison
with Fig. 1, the treatment of the grass. Few lines are
used, but by their short, straight, and generally perpendicu-
lar position they suggest a mowed lawn. The stonework
of the building is indicated by few touches at the angles
and about the windows, without any attempt to outline indi-
vidual stones. The darkest mass of the picture, the shadow
of the arches over the porch, is near the center. The end
of the building, in full sunlight, is relieved somewhat by

40 RENDERING WITH PEN AND BRUSH §2

the suggestion of foliage just behind it, and the two figures
in the foreground. Observe how the figures diminish in
size as they recede from the eye, and that their heads are
all at the same level, and that the spaces between them are
unequal. All these details are of importance.

After rendering this plate, place the title in its proper
position, and the name, date, and class letter and number
below the border line as usual.

DRAWING PLATE, TITLE: DECORATIVE DESIGNS

32. To a certain extent all drawings, good in composi-
tion and design, may be said to be decorative, but there is
in general a distinction to be made between decoration and
illustration. Decorative drawings in a book are for the
purpose of ornamenting and enriching its appearance, rather
than of giving information by the representation of facts. A
decorative drawing may, it is true, have a pictorial motive,
as is the case in Figs. 1 and 4, but it will be observed that
neither of these are pictures such as we should make for
purely illustrative purposes. Decorative drawings, there-
fore, are drawings of subjects that are so treated as to be of
decorative interest first and of pictorial interest afterwards,
whereas illustrative drawings are those that are intended
primarily to convey a fact. This drawing plate represents a
series of typical book decorations. Fig. 1 is a design for
the front or cover; Fig. 2 is the back of the same book;
Fig. 3 is the title page; Fig. 4, the heading for the first
chapter; Fig. 5, an initial letter; and Figs. 6 and 8 florets, or
printers' ornaments, introduced into the text occasionally for
the separation of paragraphs. Fig. 7 is a tail-piece that
may be used at the end of each chapter or at the end of the
book, as may be required. This drawing plate of decorative
designs is thus a series of drawings for a single book, to be
used to decorate its pages and hardly at all to illustrate
the story.

In designing the cover of a book, there is considerable
scope in the choice of motives. In this case, landscape for

DECORATIVI

ASVMMER.1N-
KVRALENGLAISD
BY ROY- RAND

F19. /.

CHAPTER. I • EXMOORi

Fiy.4.

Printed in the I 'in/,;/ States. C 'opyrig

Entered at Stationers' Ha \m

DESIGN

|D)\\ N^jps

BY * E0Y * 13%MB

/v^. J.

/v/. <?.

/, /'.r International Textbook Company
don. All rights, reserved

§2 RENDERING WITH PEN AND BRUSH 41

the front and floral form for the back have been chosen.
The motive of the cover is a typical English village, with
its cottage and adjacent buildings, trees and field, and a
curving brook bordered by grass and flowers. The problem
involved in such a design has for its chief consideration the
satisfactory arrangement of the letters of the title itself, and
the introduction of such masses in the pictorial part that the
lettering and the picture will balance and form a harmonious
whole.

A glance at Fig. 3 will show that the whole design has
been kept light, and that the same kind of line has been
used in the floral decoration as has been used in the letter-
ing. In Fig. 1, however, the lines of the letters are much
heavier than those in the picture below, and give an effect of
weight or heaviness at the top. A heavy line is introduced
into the pictorial design in order to make it harmonize with
the lettering. The treatment of the landscape is extremely
conventional. A portion of the trees are rendered in solid
black, or silhouette, while others are in middle gray con-
sisting of small oval forms indicative of leaves.

If this were taken literally the leaves would be of enor-
mous size. In trees at this distance, the leaves could not be
distinguished clearly. This means of indicating them is the
frankest decorative convention. The same might be said of
the bricks in the building and of the flowers and blades of
grass, etc. These are indicated out of all proportion to
their actual sizes, in order to secure a good rendering
of this character. The sky and the water are likewise
conventionally treated.

Consideration of light and shade do not enter so much
into the grouping of this design, yet the dark masses are so
disposed that the center of the balance is a little above the
center of the picture. Bear in mind that the lettering is as
much a part of this design as anything else and that in the
general effect it constitutes a tone of about what we would
call a middle gray; that is to say, the effect of the lettering
is about half way between black and white.

In preparing this plate it should, like all the others, be

42 RENDERING WITH PEN AND BRUSH §2

•1 „i„-«« the rectangle enclosing Fig. 1,
ioi"^ rmt in oencil, making tne ietwuBiv
ef inches by 8 inches, and li inches from the upper and
Jftland herder lines. The inner rectangle , eon= the
lanrlseaoe on this book cover is ii inches hy 4, inches, ana
"located 1 inch above the bottom of the enclosing rec angle
oV the design. The upper line of the lettering is , inch
Mow the top of the enclosing rectangle, and the lettering
is I inch high with * inch between the lines.

The lettering and general shape of the landscape should
be carefully dfawn in pencil. The details of the leaves
brick grass etc. should not be drawn in pencil but put n
with the pen. The solid black portion of the foliage should
be rendered with the brush, but the rest of the work may
then be executed with an Esterbrook bank pen.

of Fig. 1, and 'is 1* inches wide. The lettering on the back
o cupfes the same space in height as that of Flg 1 but the
letters are only A inch high and are spaced about „ inch
apart The letters at the bottom of the back, the lower Ime
of which is 1 inch above the bottom of the book, are of the

"floral motive used in the decoration of Fig. 2 is taken
from the poppy. It will be observed how little attention has
been given to the representation of the flower realistically
While the general character of the poppy has influenced the
designer, his main object has been to execute an ornament
suitable to the surface that is to be decorated The space is
tall- therefore, the ornament must be tall, and vertical lines
must dominate its character. The small florets introduced
with the lettering at the top and bottom do not compete in
value with the letters, but harmonize with them in weight
and help fill out the space. The form of these florets,
though not identical, is similar to the general form ot the
flower or ornament used in the general design.

34. Fig. 3, representing the title page of the book, is a
trifle smaller than Fig. 1, as the latter being the cover must
extend beyond the pages. The space between Figs. 2 and ••

Sl> rendering with pen AXL) BRUSH 43

is H inches, while the width and height of Fig. 3 are each
i inch less than Fig. 1. The lettering at the top and bottom
of the title page is enclosed in a rectangle 6.1 inches by
4i inches, placed 1 inch above the bottom of the page. The
letters of the title on this page are t inch high with i inch
between each two lines of lettering, excepting at the bottom,
where the spacing is only 3^ inch. The letters at the bottom
are 1 inch high.

The floral motive on this title page is taken from an
English wild flower and is in harmony with the subject,
A Summer in Rural England. It should be drawn care-
fully in pencil, the central flower and stem being sketched
first and the general lines of the decoration arranged about
it. The left side of the design may be finished in detail and
carefully traced off on tracing paper and transferred to the
right side, so that both are identical in position. The stems
should be drawn with T square and triangle, but the inking
should be done freehand throughout. A No. 404 Gillott's
pen is suitable for this exercise.

35. The chapter heading, Fig. 4, is similar in motive to
the general design of Fig. 1. In width the design is con-
siderably in excess of the width of the page, but it is cus-
tomary to make designs for reproduction from one-half to
two times the size of the finished product, as in photoen-
graving it will be reduced and the lines are therefore ren-
dered much finer and clearer. It is not absolutely necessary
that drawings should be made larger than they are to appear
when printed, but in general practice it is found that a cer-
tain raggedness on the edge of the line detracts somewhat
from the appearance of the drawing as an illustration, and as
this raggedness can be obviated entirely by photographing
the drawing to a reduced size, it is generally customary to
take advantage of this mechanical method for eliminating
this slight defect.

Fig. 4 is i inch below Fig. 1 and 2^ inches high, while in
width it is the same as the cover. The lettering is a trifle
larger than i inch in height, and the inner lines forming the

44 RENDERING WITH PEN AND BRUSH §2

unalP enclosing the landscape and lettering are A inch
rectangle enclosing -i-.inch space between

r;r."".; "- «--* — 'sir.

number ot Hnes in the outlines of

TZ^TZ monotint « a ** white, thereby throwing
the picture out of balance.

36 Fig. 5. like Figs. 3 aud 7, is a symmetrical design;
that is the sides are identical. The foliage and flowers of
the POPPY have been so arranged that they are m rhythm
ith the circular form of the letter. In decorating a surface,
h Ten ally advisable that the lines of the decoration
Uld be in harmony with the genera, outline of to ^c
to be decorated; that is, if the surface to be decorated
° rectangular, then straight lines parallel wife the most
nrom nent sides of the surface should form the governing
ZZToi the decoration. Although this >*.£* «e£
gular a circular figure is its most promtnen detail , the e
Fore the lines about the circle conform to the circular
motive while the straight stalk in the middle emphasizes
"he vertical feeling, and the corners are treated to harmonize
Loth with the curved and the straight lines, thus g.v.ng

harmony to the whole. ;nrhes

This figure is i inch to the right of Fig. 4, and is 2, inches
SQuare. The sides of the inner rectangle containing .the
ornament are A inch within the mam rectangle. The circ e
outlining the letter 0 has a radius of 1* inches, and should
be drawn in pencil with the compasses; while the inner curve
of the circle is contoured with the compasses at th e sa me
radius, with the center A inch to the right and left of the
center of the outer circle. The general design should be
sketched in pencil, and the left half carefully finished, then

§2 RENDERING WITH PEN AND BRUSH 15

traced and transferred to the right half, as was done with
Fig. 3. The 0 may be inked with a brush, but the rest of
the figure should be rendered freehand with a firm, steady,
slow line.

Figs. 6 and 8 are placed directly under the outside lines of
Fig. 3, on the same base line as Figs. 4 and 5. These are
simple forms that should be drawn in pencil first and then
carefully filled in with brush; the outlines are put in if
necessary with the pen. The smaller leaves can be drawn
entirely with the pen, by varying the pressure in order to
produce a heavy or fine line, or swelled line, as indicated
in some of the parts.

37. Fig. 7 is 4i inches by 21 inches. Here we have
taken the wild rose — the national English flower — as the
motive. A half tone in this design is secured by the careful
veining of the leaves, while a dead black is inserted behind
the rose as a background. This background gives a snap
to the design and helps to define the outline. In sketching
this, a center line should be drawn and the design worked
about it. Then the left side should be finished carefully.
traced off, and transferred to the right side. The entire
drawing should be inked freehand, although the background
should be laid in with the brush.

After completing this sheet satisfactorily, place the title
at the top, \ inch below the top border line, in letters \ inch
high, after which insert the name, date, and class letter
and number in their proper places, as usual.

DRAWING PLATE, TITLE: WASH DRAWINGS

38. The rendering of this plate, although entirely differ-
ent in method from any of the previous plates, is dependent
none the less on identically the same artistic principles.
While studying Freehand Drawings the student was given
instruction in the handling of the brush and the laying of
simple washes; in the rendering of this plate there is little
that is new to be learned.

46 RENDERING WITH PEN AND BRUSH §2

In wash drawing it is necessary, as in pen drawing, to use
several values, and it should be remembered that these
values should be produced directly; that is, one wash of
the proper depth of tint should be used instead of several
washes laid over one another. This direct method gives a
snap and crispness to the drawing that is impossible to
obtain by means of a series of washes. All of the prin-
ciples of composition that have been studied apply in the
same manner to wash drawing, but we have not to concern
ourselves with the rhythm of line, inasmuch as our values
are produced directly instead of by means of groups or
hatchings of lines. Wash rendering, therefore, involves
fewer technical difficulties than does pen-and-ink rendering,
but it should not be inferred from this that wash drawing is
easier than pen-and-ink drawing, for it has new difficulties
of its own.

In pen-and-ink work the student Was impressed that actual
outlines did not exist but were expressed by means of tints
or values, but it was found necessary in several cases to
indicate outlines by an ink line. In wash drawing, however,
we actually have no outline. In certain conventional render-
ings, such as Fig. 1, the outline is inserted as a part of the
design, but observe in Fig. 2 the entire form is expressed by
a series of values adjacent to one another without any indi-
vidual outline being expressed.

It is possible to go much further in the expression of
values in wash drawing than it is with pen and ink, but it
seldom occurs that one need employ more than five values
in order to express what is desired in his picture. In addi-
tion to the material used for pen-and-ink drawing, the student
will here require a brush that will be used entirely for wash
work, and which must never be used in the solid black ink-
ing that is used for filling in pen work. The brush should
be about No. 6 or No. 7 and of good quality, so that it will
possess elasticity and come to a point readily.

The medium, or material, in which this drawing is ren-
dered is charcoal gray, although for some monochrome
rendering sepia is used, occasionally tempered with a little

THE NEW IfORK
PUBLIC UDHARY

TILDES frUNO-

- WA S H - D

Fia I.

Fia. 3

Printed in the United States. Copyri
Entered at Stationers' //<

AWI N G S -

Fie?. 2..

Fig. 4.

by International Textbook Company
>n. All rights reserved

§2 RENDERING WITH PEN AND BRUSH 17

Vandyke brown or burnt sienna to lighten or deepen its
tone. The washes for the plate may be mixed in an ordi-
nary saucer, or a special water-color dish with several com-
partments. It is best to have two or three small dishes to
contain the different washes representing different values,
though after the student becomes experienced and skilled
in the use of his brush he will be able to mix these values
readily by adding more color or more water to the solution
he has already prepared. The drawings should be exe-
cuted on Whatman's or some other cold-pressed drawing
paper, stretched on the board; this paper can be obtained
ready mounted on heavy cardboard, and is sold under the
name of illustrator's board. The blotter should be close at
hand in order that the brush may be quickly dried, when
occasion demands it, and a small, soft, wet sponge will be
found exceedingly handy for wiping off a bad wash before
it gets dry.

39. To draw Fig. 1, the student should make the enclo-
sing rectangle 4f inches by 5f inches, and place it li inches
below and to the right of the border lines. It indicates a
simple treatment in flat tones of a still-life study, and con-
tains five values including the white and the black. No
attempt has been made to render actual light values, except
where the small patches of white indicate where the
strongest light falls on the objects. Observe how much
can be expressed by the simple suggestion of these high
lights, and study their location in still-life objects in order
that they may be put in their proper places.

The best method of executing this drawing will be to
make a careful drawing in pencil on another piece of paper
and then carefully trace and transfer it to its proper place on
the drawing plate that is to be sent in for criticism. This
is advised because when washes are to be applied to the
paper the surface must be perfectly smooth and even, and if
much rubbing is done in order to correct the drawing the
washes will not flow evenly.

The success in the rendering of this figure depends as

48 RENDERING WITH PEN AND BRUSH §2

much on the accuracy and truth of the facts as on the
smoothness of the washes; truth in values can be obtained
only by painstaking care, in experimenting; with each wash
and matching it carefully with the scale of value desired.
Reference should be made to the scale of five wash values
that has been made, and the tones in Fig. 1 arranged to cor-
respond. Smooth washes can be obtained only when the
wash is laid rather quickly and spread over the surface
evenly, before any portion has had an opportunity to dry.
The board should be held in a slanting position toward the
worker, and the wash begun in the upper left-hand corner
and carried down from left to right. When the wash is
completed and the surplus color has reached the lower
right-hand corner, the brush should be dried on the blotter
and the point applied to the wash to absorb the superfluous
moisture. Care must always be taken that one wash is
thoroughly dry before the next one is laid beside it, other-
wise they may run together; sometimes it is desirable to
have them do this. The dark outline in this figure is exe-
cuted, after all the rest of the work is done, with the point
of the brush held as indicated for making the brush strokes
in Freehand Drawing.

40. In Fig. 2 the problem is more complicated, because
the expression of light and shade is added to that of -the color
value and the shades are graded and vignetted into one
another. In applying the wash to this drawing, the principal
object should be considered first; that is, the silk hat. First,
lay the light gray wash inside the band, leaving the patch of
white where the high light falls. When this is nearly dry
add the middle value to the rim and the ribbon and down
the high light of the crown. Before this latter is quite dry,
the deep black should be applied so that it will spread into
it slightly and not produce a hard line where the high light
and the dark portion come together. If there is a tendency
for the black to spread too much, it is a sign that the half
tone is too wet, and the tendency to spread may be lessened
by touching it slightly with the edge of a piece of blotting

§2 RENDERING WITH PEN AND BRUSH 49

paper. The rest of the crown should now be laid in, and
the very slightly reflected lights on the side of the hat may
be produced by absorbing with the blotter the excess of
color that gives the deadness of tone. The softening of
washes at the edges, where such is desirable so that a dark
tone may gradually blend into a light one, is usually effected
by rinsing the brush in clear water and then gently drawing
it along the edge of the still wet wash that is to be softened.
In this way a dark tint may be gradually washed down
almost to pure white.

Another way of vignetting the dark tint into the light is
to wet the paper with water before the dark tint is applied.
Where a light gray tint is to be washed into a lighter tint this
is the best method, because the entire surface may be moist-
ened with clear water, and then the gray tint worked into the
center of it wherever desired, and the edges afterwards
softened off so that the line of demarcation between the
white paper and the gray tint is utterly unobservable.

41. Fig. 3 is a small sketch of part of one of the Cali-
fornia Mission Buildings. The only new thing in this figure
is the rendering of the foliage, which is extremely crude and
suggestive. The principal object is the tower and dome,
which should be drawn first. There are two shades of gray
on the sides of the dome, and the windows are one tone
darker. In rendering the foliage, begin with middle gray
and soften it at the edges where necessary in order not to
make it too harsh. The black on the poplar tree should be
added while the middle gray is still moist, in order that it
may spread and produce a soft effect at the edges. The
slight suggestion of outline around the dome of the tower
and along the eaves and string courses should be introduced
in order to preserve the architectural effect of the building,
in contrast to the sketchy foliage.

42. Fig. 4 is a problem similar to Fig. 3, but slightly
more difficult. The two sides of the pyramids are expressed
in two tones, and the other details of the landscape are
rendered in tones that give them contrast and variety of

50 RENDERING WITH PEN AND BRUSH §2

effect. This figure should be studied carefully and rendered
according to the principles described. There is nothing in it
differing from the preceding problems. When complete,
draw the border line, place the title i inch high and i inch
below the upper border line, and then insert name, date, and
class letter and number in their usual places.

This completes the Course of study on rendering with pen
and brush, and the student has had placed before him all the
principal problems that arise in this class of work. The
making of a few drawing plates and the studying of a few
principles, however, will not make an artist of him, and he
will find it advantageous and necessary to draw constantly
objects that he sees around him and to render both in wash
and in line drawings such objects as he may find time to
study. This practice, together with a careful criticism of his
work on general principles, will assist him greatly and enable
him soon to go about and make satisfactory drawings of the
various subjects he desires to see portrayed.

ELEMENTS OF WATER-COLOR
RENDERING

INTRODUCTION

1. Few individuals are capable of appreciating the exist-
ence of actual color in all objects in nature. The brilliant
hues of flowers, the deep greens of trees, the deep blue of
the ocean, and the azure of the sky are evident to nearly
every one, but to the majority of persons uneducated in art
or color such objects as pieces of coal, old iron, or ordi-
nary street mud appear devoid of color and utterly black,
while white-muslin garments, etc. appear white without tinge
of color at all. As a matter of fact, these are not the con-
ditions; blackness exists only in absolute darkness, and
where there is light there is color.

Color perception is purely a matter of cultivation. The
power to distinguish between the bright colors of red, blue,
green, etc. is usually developed in early childhood so that,
like speaking or reading, it seems perfectly natural. But
the method of teaching color to children is usually very
crude, for while the average boy or girl can tell readily the
difference between bright green and bright blue, few of them
can distinguish between a bluish green and a greenish blue.
Green being composed of blue and yellow will change in its
hue according to the predominance of blue or yellow in its
composition. A proper mixture, we assume, will make pure
green; an excess of blue will make a bluish green; an excess

For notice of copyright, see pax? immediately following the title page
23

2 ELEMENTS OF §3

of yellow will make a yellowish green. These slight differ-
ences must be studied and the eye must be cultivated to
appreciate them.

Ask a child the color of an old horseshoe lying in the
street and he will tell you that it possesses no color; coal is
black, and so is mud, to his untrained eye. This inability to
perceive certain colors should not be confused with color
blindness, which is a disease or freak of nature that can
rarely be cured. It is simply color ignorance, which can be
overcome by study, as any other lack of perception can,
according to the amount of attention that is given to it.

The ancients understood the use and application of color
and made very subtle combinations of it in their decorations,
but for centuries the theory of color has lain dormant.
Within a comparatively few years, however, color as seen in
nature has begun to seriously occupy the minds of artists
and teachers, and its fruits are visible in the growing demand
of the public for color and the striving for mechanical
methods of reproducing color.

2. At the present day efforts are made in the kinder-
garten and primary schools to teach children the proper
perception and appreciation of color and to develop their
color sense. The results of this teaching in the next few
years cannot be predicted; even now these children far out-
strip many of their elders in knowledge and comprehension
of the theory of color and ability to see color in all things.
One future result of this will be that the craftsman, the
designer, the architect, the illustrator, or the painter that
is not familiar with modern truths concerning color and
persists in following an old and antiquated system of color-
ing, not according to theory but according to certain ancient
formulas, will find himself set aside and replaced by the man
of individual perception. The child in the public school of
today is likely in 10 years from now to be practicing in one
of these crafts or professions, while the craftsman and
professional of today will still be engaged in his same line.
It is not difficult to predict that the early public-school

§3 WATER-COLOR RENDERING 3

education in color will make the younger man the more
skilled craftsman of the two.

The illustrator will feel this quite as much as any other
artist, inasmuch as the increased demand for colored repro-
ductions has caused an increase in methods of reproducing
color, and the illustrator of the near future will necessarily
be called on to express his compositions in color far more
frequently than he does in the present day.

This Section will treat especially of the developments of
the color sense, together with its application to the render-
ing of various objects in their natural color. The student
must be familiar with the details of freehand drawing, light
and shade, and the uses of plain wash, so that his whole
attention can be concentrated on the application of his color
sense. The purpose of this Section is to teach the student
how to study as well as what to study, and by means of a
number of definite lessons that will teach him how to render
certain objects, to enable him to render other objects by
the development of his color perception. The Course here
given is identical with that of the leading art schools, where
the instructor gives directions to the student as to how
work shall be executed and criticizes it when it is completed.
Each illustration used in this work, except the drawing exer-
cises, has been made by a student during the progress of
a similar course of study in a resident art school, and
expresses therefore the impression a student receives from
his instruction during the progress of his work rather than
the theoretical idea in the mind of the more experienced
instructor.

3. Relation of Iaght and Shade. — The relation of
light and shade to color is a very important one, since
color is a sensation produced by certain conditions of light,
and outside of those conditions does not exist at all. To
make this clearer assume that a red card is hanging in a
room. As long as that room is illuminated, no matter in
how slight a degree, the card remains red, but as soon as
the room is in utter darkness the card is no longer red

4 ELEMENTS OF §3

because the sensation of the red color is produced by the
reflection of the light from it, and if there is no light to
reflect, there is no color.

4. Shade and Shadow. — Shade is produced by varying
the degree of light. If an object is "equally illuminated
on all sides it possesses no shade side, but where the light
falls upon it from one direction some parts of it are illu-
minated more than others and there is a light side and a
shade side. If opaque, the object interferes with the
passage of light and casts a shadow. Shadows vary in
degree from a slight diminution of the power of the direct
light to utter darkness.

5. White Light. — An analysis of white light will show
that it is composed of a combination of seven separate
colors — violet, indigo, blue, green, yellow, orange, and
red — that vary in quantity. It can also be formed by com-
bining colored lights in certain proportions. An illustration
of the analysis and decomposition of light may be seen in
the rainbow, where the sunlight passing through drops of
rain is refracted and broken up into its several colors. A
more satisfactory decomposition of light can be obtained
by means of a glass prism, with which the colors appear
much clearer.

6. Artificial Color. — The only method that we have
of producing the sensation of color with any degree of per-
manency is by means of pigments or dyes. If we stain a
piece of paper or fabric with a certain dye, or if we paint on
its surface with a pigment, we produce on that paper the
sensation of a given color. This is due to the fact that the
pigment or dye has the chemical quality of absorbing all
the color rays that compose the white light except the par-
ticular color that it reflects back to the eye, and thus pro-
duces that sensation. If we paint on the paper with red and
set it in the light, we know that the pigment is absorbing
the violet, indigo, blue, green, yellow, and orange rays and
is reflecting back to the eye only the red; hence, the sensa-
tion of red.

§3 WATER-COLOR RKN I)KR I XO

PRIMARY COLORS

7. The Spectrum. — The seven colors forming white
light are called the spectrum; their relation varies with
different kinds of light, such as sunlight, gaslight, lamp-
light, etc. That is to say, the seven colors composing the
spectrum vary in proportion, but are constant for the same
kind of light. It is found that green, violet, and orange
can be produced by the mixture of other colors, so that if
these are taken from the spectrum, as well as the indigo, of
which we will learn more later, we will reduce the number
of colors to three — red, yellow, and blue. These three
colors are termed the primary colors, inasmuch as they
cannot be divided into any other colors and exist by them-
selves as a standard from which all other colors and shades
can be theoretically made. Red and yellow make orange,
blue and yellow make green, red and blue make violet.

8. Formation of Colors of Spectrum. — It may be

assumed that when a surface is covered with green paint,
the surface absorbs all the colors of the spectrum except
the yellow and the blue which it reflects to the eye,
producing the sensation of green. The proportion of each
of these colors — yellow and blue — that is reflected will deter-
mine the quality of the green that appears on the surface.
For practical purposes it can be assumed that the colors of
the spectrum are really red, yellow, and blue, and that the
colors orange, green, and violet consist of an admixture of
the adjacent colors, inasmuch as the orange occurs between
the red and yellow and the green between the yellow and
blue. Therefore, we will confine our studies to these three
colors for the present.

The ancients seemed to possess a very practical idea of
these colors and their harmony with one another, inasmuch as
all the earliest and, from an artistic standpoint, highest quality
of ornament and decoration were executed in the three primary
colors, and the secondary, or mixed, colors were not intro-
duced until the art of the various periods began to decline.

ELEMENTS OF §3

SECONDARY AND TERTIARY COLORS

9. The secondary colors are those composed of two
primaries, namely, green, orange, and violet; they vary in
shade or tint according to the proportion of the admixture
of the two colors composing them, whereas the primary
colors are standard and do not vary. A mixture of two
secondary colors gives us what we term a tertiary color,
or one composed of four primaries. This may seem some-
what obscure at first, inasmuch as we have but three prima-
ries, but in a tertiary color some one of the primaries must
exist twice. If we mix green and orange we will get a
brown in which there is nearly twice as much yellow as
there is of either of the other primaries, and while it con-
tains nothing but the three primary colors it is in reality
composed of four ingredients.

POSITION OF COEORS IN CHROMATIC SCALE

10. Blue and Yellow. — Of the three primary colors
blue possesses that quality that is technically known as
"coldness," and if we adopt a chromatic scale — a scale
wherein the various colors are related to one another in the
same manner that the various degrees of light and shade are
related to one another, that is, from most brilliant sunlight
to absolute darkness — blue will be nearest black or darkness.
That is to say, blue is the least obtrusive of all colors, and
when used in a design or decoration is the least conspicuous.
Blue bears exactly the same relation to absolute darkness
or black that yellow does to brilliant light or white; the
palest tint of yellow is nearly white, the darkest shade
of blue (indigo) is nearly black. Yellow and blue, then,
will occupy the extreme ends of our color scale, and all
other colors will be arranged between them in the order
of their brilliancy or obtrusiveness.

11. Red. — The position of red in the chromatic scale is
midway between yellow and blue, it being intermediate

§3 WATER-COLOR RENDERING 7

between black and white or between light and shade.
Hence, red has a double power in its mixtures, for by union
or mixture with yellow it becomes a warm and conspicuous
color, but combined with blue it recedes and becomes colder
and retiring-. It is preeminent with all colors, forming- with
yellow the secondary color orange and its close relatives
scarlet, etc., and with blue the secondary purple with its
allies violet, crimson, etc. It gives warmth to all colors, but
particularly to those that already possess a proportion of
yellow to some degree.

12. Orange. — Of the secondary colors the first in rela-
tion to light and warmth is orange. Such a compound of
red and yellow as will, in an equal quantity of either surface
or intensity, neutralize a perfect blue is termed a perfect
orange. The term neutralize means to offset completely in
intensity or prominence. The proportions of such a com-
pound are very important and consist of five parts of perfect
red and three parts of perfect yellow. An increase of red
causes the color to approach scarlet; an increase of yellow
causes it to approach a lemon yellow. A mixture of orange
with green forms the tertiary color called citrine, and with
purple it produces russet.

13. Green. — In the general scale of colors, green, so
far as relation of light and shade are concerned, occupies the
middle position, but in the secondary colors it is second. It
is composed of the extreme primaries yellow and blue. A
perfect green consists of three parts of yellow and eight parts
of blue in equal intensities, and will neutralize a perfect red
in the proportion of 11 : 5. Of all compound colors green
is the most effective, distinct, and striking, and contrasts
beautifully with the other primaries and secondaries; it is
the most abundant color found in nature. Mixed with orange
it produces the tertiary citrine, and with purple the other
tertiary, olive.

14. Purple. — The third and last of the secondary colors
is purple, composed of five parts of red and eight parts
of blue, and will neutralize a perfect yellow in the proportion

8 ELEMENTS OF §3

of 13 : 3. With green it produces olive, and with orange,
russet. It is the coldest of the secondary colors and nearest
black in respect to light and shade. It is a receding color
and possesses many of the qualities of blue in this respect.
Next to green, purple is the most pleasing of the contrasting
colors. It has long been emblematic of royalty, probably on
account of its rareness in a pure state in nature. Purple when
inclined to red takes the name of crimson, and falling back
toward blue becomes violet.

These six colors constitute the entire gamut or chromatic
scale with which all tints and shades are represented. If we
consider a color scale beginning with the palest yellow and
ending in the darkest blue, we have the extremes of light
and shade producible by pure color. If we have a parallel
scale beginning with the purest white and ending in the
deepest black, we have the extremes of light and shade
producible with all the colors, or, in other words, producible
with white light.

COLORS AND CHARTS

MATERIALS

15. Colors. — Although different artists have different
ideas as to what colors are essential in water-color ren-
dering, this series of graded lessons has been based on
the use of a limited number of pigments. The follow-
ing ten colors have been selected for this Course, and the
drawing plates and illustrations herein have been made
with them: Crimson, vermilion, orange, gamboge, yellow
ocher, emerald green, Prussian blue, new blue, burnt sienna,
and Vandyke brown.

1(>. Brushes. — Four brushes will be found sufficient for
all of the work: a large camel's-hair brush for broad washes;
two sable brushes, No. 3 and No. 6, for smaller washes and
details; and a small bristle brush used for scrubbing — a term
that will be explained later.

§3 WATER-COLOR RENDERING 9

17. Paper. — Cold-pressed drawing paper stretched on
the board will be found suitable for the drawing plates and
large practice work, while pads or blocks may be used for
the general practice work. There are two grades of the
cold-pressed drawing paper — one smooth and the other
rough. Smooth paper is recommended for practice work,
although for high art work and pictures to be framed, an
extremely rough water-color paper will present a softer and
more pleasing effect.

CLASSIFICATION OF CO LOUS

18. As the primary, secondary, and tertiary colors are,
theoretically, found in the spectrum, or formed by combina-
tions of its colors, for the sake of clearness and uniformity
all tertiary colors are united under the general term gray.
If the three primaries are combined, a neutral gray is obtained
that may be infinitely varied by varying the proportions of
the individual elements. This is of the utmost importance
in painting, for in all of our work we will be chiefly concerned
with these modified or broken colors, which we class, for the
time being, under the general name oigray.

These grays can be divided into two general classes — warm
and cool. The warm grays are those in which red or yellow
predominate; the cool grays, those in which blue and violet
predominate. These grays will be specially designated by
such terms as blue-gray, green-gray . yellow-gray, etc.

19. line. — Green and violet being secondary colors that
are produced by the combination of a warm and cool color,
are in themselves warm or cool according to the predomi-
nance of one or the other of their constituent elements.
Thus, a yellow-green is a warm color, while a blue-green is
classed as a cool color in the general color scale. This varia-
tion of a color by the addition of a small amount of some
other color is designated as a change of hue.

20. Tone. — When a color is made lighter or darker by
the addition of another color a change of tone is the result.
Light tones of a color are termed tints, the dark tones

10 ELEMENTS OF §3

shades. The student should familiarize himself with these
terms, as they will be frequently referred to.

21. Value. — The term value is applied to the relative
amount of light reflected by the different colors, the strong
values being those that approach white on one side and
black on the other. For example, in some object there may
be as many as six tones of color — three grades in the light
and three in the shaded portion. The high light will have
the strongest value in the lights, and the deepest shadow
will have the strongest value in the dark portions. A correct
rendering of these comparative values is essential to the
proper representation of any object, as will be explained as
we proceed.

22. Positive eolor is the pure determinate color that
may be produced with a strong wash of any one of the pri-
mary or secondary pigments; that is, the clear color as we
have it in our color box.

23. Local eolor is a term applied to denote the general
color of an object without reference to the accidental effect
produced by light and shade, distance, or the reflection of other
colors. For instance, the foliage of a tree is green in its local
color, but in the reflected light of a sunset it may be golden
brown; distance may render it a bluish tinge, and atmos-
pheric conditions may reduce it to a neutral gray. Thus, we
see that the apparent color of an object may be anything but
what the local color would indicate.

24. Complementary colors are those that, by their
union, will theoretically produce white, or neutral gray. It
is impossible to produce pure white by a combination of
pigments, but it is possible to produce a dingy white or
neutral gray by a mixture of all the spectrum hues in pig-
ments, either individually or through the secondaries. Thus,
the secondary colors become the complementaries of the
primaries, inasmuch as by mixing any secondary with its
opposite primary we have, to a certain extent, the elements
that go to make up all the colors of the spectrum. For

§3 WATER-COLOR RENDERING 11

instance, as red and yellow make orange, red and blue make
violet, yellow and blue make green, etc., we have by a com-
bination of red, yellow, and blue all of these six colors.
Therefore, the complementary of any of the primary colors
will be the secondary color that contains the other primaries.
Green thus becomes the complementary of red, violet of
yellow, and orange of blue.

Carrying this theory down more exactly, blue-green
becomes the opposite of red, reddish blue the opposite of
yellow, and yellow-orange the opposite of blue. As the
red pigment leans toward yellow, thus becoming slightly
orange, its complementary color — green — becomes bluer
in order to compensate properly. As the red pigment
approaches blue, its complementary color — green — takes on
more yellow in order to offset the blue that is in the red, as
there is already sufficient blue in the green to compensate
the plain red; and so it is with all the other colors and their
opposites, and we can thus obtain the complementary of any
color with sufficient accuracy for all practical purposes
in painting.

25. Contrast is a term applied to the effect produced
when two or more colors, or different tones of the same
color, are placed next to each other. There are three kinds
of contrast — contrast of tone, contrast of hue, and contrast
of tone and hue. Thus, the combination of a tint and a
shade of the same color will produce a contrast of tone,
as shown in Fig. 4 (g); a combination of two distinct colors
of the same tone will produce a contrast of hue, as shown
at (/'); and a combination of opposite colors, one of which is
light and one dark, will produce contrasts of both tone and
hue, as shown at (s).

When colors of different natures are placed next to one
another, they have the power of mutually affecting each
other with their complementary colors. Thus, when red and
green are placed together they each appear more intense;
when a neutral color is surrounded by a positive color the
neutral color becomes tinged with the complementary color

12 ELEMENTS OF §3

of the positive; that is, when a gray is surrounded by a red
the gray appears tinged with green, that being the comple-
mentary of red. This is called simultaneous contrast, and
can be studied in Fig. 4 (&), (c), {d), and (e), where four
rings of neutral gray are surrounded by four positive colors,
each of which appears to change the color of the ring to a
certain extent. This change of color may not be apparent at
first, but a careful study of the four rings will show a differ-
ence, and by closing the eyes slightly, or viewing the rings
through a piece of tissue paper, the decided tone of the
complementary color will make itself apparent. Thus, the
ring surrounded by crimson has a tint of slightly bluish
green when compared with the others, while the one on the
violet appears lighter and somewhat yellow. The ring on
the green appears tinged with a bluish red, while that on the
yellow appears decidedly darker and tinged with a reddish
blue. It is difficult for the average student to realize that
the four rings are exactly the same tinge and hue and that
this apparent difference in color is simply effected by the
force of contrast. The importance of this will be pointed
out when we take up the subject of color observation in the
rendering of objects.

COLOR DIAGRAMS

26. In order to become familiar with the pigments with
which he will have to deal in this study, the student should
make color diagrams as follows:

On a sheet of stretched drawing paper lay out a diagram in
pencil, as shown in Fig. 1. Make the ten squares on the
upper part of the sheet 1 inch on each side and the ten rect-
angles below them, 1 inch wide and 2 inches long. Begin-
ning with the upper left-hand corner, lay on flat washes of
color on each square with a No. 6 brush well charged from
the color pan. The color should not be a thin wash, as in
wash-drawing work, but thick and creamy and as nearly full
strength as possible without becoming too bulky to handle.
It must be thick enough to give its full strength and value on
the white paper and thin enough to wash evenly over the

■

§8 WATER-COLOR RENDERING 13

surface. It should be tried on a separate piece of paper before
being applied to the diagram. With a brush full of gamboge
thus mixed, the square in the upper left-hand corner should
be washed in, keeping the edges as true as possible and
using the brush on its side so as to make broad marks rather
than a series of fine ones. Keep a good pool of color in
front of the brush, and work it toward the lower edge by
slightly tilting the board. When the square has been washed
completely full and the sides and edges trued up nicely, the
color should be removed from the brush by drawing it across
a piece of blotting paper and the pool in the corner of the
square removed by touching it with the partly dried brush.
Each square in the upper part of the plate should be
similarly washed in with its successive pigments, care being
taken to keep them uniform in wash and positive in color.
Do not allow any of one color to remain in the brush when
it is recharged with another color; wash the brush thoroughly
before each change of color, and use perfectly clean water
for the mixing of all of these colors, so that none of them
may become contaminated.

27. These colors differ somewhat in their transparency;
that is, in their quality of allowing the white paper to show
through them. Gamboge is very transparent, flows very
easily, and is probably more readily applied than any of the
others; if applied too thick it will dry dark and brownish,
and should the student find this result after his efforts, it
will be well for him to thin his wash somewhat and try
again. Orange, however, is a body color, less transparent
than gamboge unless used in thin washes, but it is very
easily managed and will present no difficulties in this simple
problem. Yellow ocher is made of earth and has much
more body than either, but is still transparent when applied
in light washes. Burnt sienna is one of the most useful
colors in the color box; it is transparent and very easily
managed, showing no tendency to run in streaks nor settle
in small mottled dots. New blue is a bright, transparent
color, but not particularly powerful in combination with

14 ELEMENTS OF §3

others. Emerald green is a body color; it is very seldom
used except to mix with some other color. Vermilion is a
heavy, opaque color that settles quickly when mixed with
other pigments and must be stirred each time the brush is
refilled from the color tray. Vandyke brown is the most
difficult color to handle, especially when large surfaces must
be covered with it, for it does not flow readily and is apt to
dry in patches. However, it will be used almost exclusively
when mixed with other colors or in very light washes, in
which cases it can be handled with comparative ease.

28. With this idea of the character of these colors, start
the graded washes in the oblong spaces beneath the squares.
Start with the gamboge in the upper row on the left. A
wash of pure color, the same as that in the square above,
should be painted down about f inch; then the tip of the
brush should be dipped into the water and the wash carried
i inch farther. This operation should be repeated until
within a short distance of the bottom, gradually cleaning
the brush of the color and adding water until the brush con-
tains almost clear water, with which the space is finished.
All surplus color must be removed from the bottom, or it
will settle and make a spot. The purpose of this is to get a
clean gradation from a pure color to a very light tint.

This exercise should be practiced with every color several
times before it is tried on the sheet. The difficulty most
commonly met with results from a too sudden jump from
the pure color to a lighter tint. This is especially notice-
able in the darker colors — red, blue, and brown. The cause
of this is usually the addition of too much water when first
beginning to blend the colors, but in general practice if any
of the washes are spoiled in this way they may be removed
from their rectangles by sponging them immediately with a
soft sponge charged with plenty of cold water and after-
wards drying it up with a blotter. Another wash may then
be laid on the place where the first one was, although it
is likely to be somewhat darker than the first one, as a
certain amount of color will remain in the paper and

§3 WATER-COLOR RENDERING 15

contaminate the second wash when it is put on. The effects
on this diagram are to be produced by single washes, and
should not be attempted by a series of thin washes. Place
the name and class letter and number in the lower right-
hand corner and the date in the lower left-hand corner, and
send the diagram in for correction.

29. Now lay out another color diagram, as shown in
Fig. 2, where the five stripes of color are about 3 inches wide
and 12 inches long. Here each color is combined with each
of the other nine colors contained in the color box. The
blendings are not produced by the addition of water to the
color but by flowing the pure wet colors together in the fol-
lowing manner: All of the colors should be moist and ready
to work with by previously wetting their surfaces and stirring
slightly with the point of the brush. A glass of clean water
should be at hand for rinsing the brush, and when drawing
one of the columns of color the student must work from top
to bottom continuously, without stopping for any purpose
whatever.

Having marked on the side of each column nineteen sub-
divisions of f inch each, the board should be tilted only slightly
in order that the colors may flow downwards, and with a full
brush of gamboge the student should lay on the wash, cover-
ing two spaces of the nineteen. When the brush is removed,
a generous pool of color should stand at the bottom of the
second space, and while it is still very wet the brush should
be thoroughly rinsed and the next lot of pure color, orange,
should be stirred in, making a mixture with the gamboge in
the second space. This will blend softly with the pure
gamboge in the first space and grade to pure orange in the
third space. Each pure color and each mixture is to occupy
about f inch.

The addition of the second color will of course swell the
pool to some extent so that some of it will have to be
removed; otherwise, the mixed color will flow down too much
and overwhelm the pure color below. A sufficient amount
must be left, however, to make a soft blending. After the

ELEMENTS OF

§3

mixture has been made, the brush should be quickly rinsed
and filled with pure orange and continued down two spaces
more. After again rinsing the brush, the mixing operation
should be proceeded with in the next space below, adding
yellow ocher. This pure yellow ocher is to be afterwards
blended into burnt sienna, and so on.

30. The following is the order in which the colors are
applied in each of the columns:

Column 1
Gambogre
Orange
Yellow ocher
Burnt sienna
New blue
Emerald green
Crimson
Prussian blue
Vermilion
Vandyke brown

Column 2
Orange
Burnt sienna
Emerald green
Prussian blue
Vandyke brown
Gamboge
Yellow ocher
New blue
Crimson
Vermilion

Column 3
Yellow ocher
Emerald green
Vermilion
Gamboge
Burnt sienna
Crimson
Vandyke brown
Orange
New blue
Prussian blue

Column 4
Burnt sienna
Prussian blue
Gamboge
New blue
Vermilion
Orange

Emerald green
Vandyke brown
Yellow ocher
Crimson

Column 5
New blue
Vandyke brown
Burnt sienna
Vermilion
Yellow ocher
Prussian blue
Orange
Crimson
(iamboge
Emerald green

The errors usually made in this work are: first, the tend-
ency to use too weak color, and second, the tendency to
use too little color; thus, a hard, dry, patchy effect is the
result. In blending a dark color into a light one, the student
is likely to allow too much of the dark color to run down,
thus covering the light color and entirely annihilating it. In
practicing this work endeavor to avoid any appearance of a
horizontal line where the colors seem to blend. The addition
of a little more of the pure color and tilting the board so as
to allow it to run into the lower one will obviate this difficulty.

Practice this exercise several times before attempting to
send in a final sheet for criticism, and try to observe the
differences in successful handling, where a light color is
blended into a dark color and where a dark one is blended
into a light one; also, where two colors of the same tone are
blended together.

One of the greatest advantages of practice in this work, is
the training that it gives in the mixing of colors on the
paper instead of on the palette or the tray. A freshness
and brilliancy of color is thus obtained that cannot be
acquired in any other way.

Fig. 2

§3 WATER-COLOR RENDERING 17

When the student has finished this diagram he should
insert his name and class letter and number at the bottom,
and send it in for criticism. When the diagram is returned
to him it should be kept for reference. He should familiarize
himself with the combinations of colors used to produce
each particular hue, and between his exercises and studies
should observe all things about him and endeavor to work-
out in his own mind the particular pigments that could be
mixed to produce the color in those things, varying as
the light falls upon them.

COLOR PLATE, TITLE: THEORY OF PIGMENTS

31. Lay out a sheet in lead pencil according to the
dimensions given in Fig. 3. This plate will be rendered as
in Fig. 4, and shows: first, in the circular figure, the composi-
tion and relation of the primary, secondary, and tertiary
colors; second, in the four squares at the top, a demonstra-
tion of simultaneous contrast; third, in the nine rectangular
spaces, mixtures of colors forming grays; fourth, in the three
squares at the bottom, a demonstration of three kinds of
contrast — tone, hue, and tone and hue combined; fifth, in
the long rectangle on the left a graded wash, beginning with
new blue and ending with burnt sienna; sixth, in the rect-
angle on the right, a scale of yellow showing the normal
color, two tints and two shades.

FIRST EXERCISE

32. Begin with the circular form, Fig. 4 (a), and lay
washes of pure crimson, new blue, and gamboge in the central
sections to represent the primaries. Use a small brush and
keep the edges of the washes sharp and clean. A perfectly
flat wash is required, and the color must be fresh and brilliant.
With the red and yellow mix orange, adjusting the propor-
tions so that neither the red nor the yellow noticeably pre-
dominates in the hue, and lay this color in its proper space.
Proceed in the same manner to mix the green and the violet
from their respective elements.

ELEMENTS OF

§3

T;fp NSW Y0RK
•ARY

AS7 JCA.VD

§3 WATER-COLOR RENDERING 19

The idea is not to match the colors on the plate exactly,
but to make a representative mixture of the colors at hand.
The}7 are likely to be slightly different from the plate owing
to the difference in reproduction, but this is not important
as these exercises are designed to fix in the mind certain
facts about color.

With the orange and green now mix the tertiary citrine,
which should be yellowish in hue owing to the predominance
of yellow over the red and blue — yellow being the element
common to both green and orange. Next, make russet from
violet and orange; this color will be reddish in hue. Lastly,
from green and violet make olive; this will have a predomi-
nance of blue. Paint the small circular space in the center
with black ink or any black pigment, leaving the circle of
white around it. This, with the black enclosing line described
with the compass, completes the figure.

SKCOXl) EXERCISE

33. Lay flat washes of red, violet, green, and yellow,
respectively, over the four squares, Fig. 4($), (r), (d),and (e) .
Make the gray circles on a separate piece of paper (> inches
square, pin it to the drawing board, and apply a perfectly
flat wash of neutral gray made from a thoroughly stirred
mixture of the three primaries or with diluted drawing ink.
When dry, with a compass mark out two concentric circles
whose radii are li inches and t inch, respectively. Cut these
out and paste them in the squares of color. The contrast
may not appear strikingly evident at first, but if one looks at
the colors in a rather subdued light or through white tissue
paper, the contrast will at once become evident. The circle
on the red square will appear greenish, the complementary
color of red; the circle on the purple square will appear
yellowish, the complementary color of purple; the circle on
the green square will appear reddish; and the circle on the
yellow will appear of a purple tinge.

20 ELEMENTS OF

THIRD EXERCISE

34. This exercise in the making of grays is designed to
help in matching colors quickly and in applying mixed color
in a proper manner. It is not difficult to paint and keep
washes transparent with pure single colors, but no sooner
do we begin to handle mixtures of two or more colors than
there is a tendency toward lifeless color and muddiness —
qualities exceedingly undesirable in painting. The tints
should be clear and luminous, even when bright colors
are not employed.

Ruskin says, in his Elements of Drawing, "Give me some
mud off a city crossing, some ocher out of a gravel pit,
a little whitening, and some coal dust, and I will paint you
a luminous picture, if you give me time to gradate my mud
and subdue my dust. But, though you have the red of
the ruby, the blue of the gentian, snow for the light, and
amber for the gold, you cannot paint a luminous picture, if
you keep the masses of those colors unbroken in purity and
unvarying in depth." In other words, the mixing and
laying on of the color — that is, the handling — has more to do
with the beauty of the result than has the natui'e or quality
of the colors used.

In these grays, then, it is desirable that the colors should
be so combined and applied as not to produce flat, uninter-
esting neutrality, but rather a wash of luminous, iridescent
quality, which on close inspection shows slight gradations of
tone and color, while at a little distance it appears to be one
tone and one hue. To do this, it is necessary that the colors
be only partially mixed or stirred together.

The best results are obtained by mixing the color more
or less on the paper. Take the first example — gray made
by a mixture of crimson, new blue, and gamboge. Make a
strong wash of each in separate compartments of the color
saucer, fill the brush by dipping it successively into the
three colors without any stirring, and apply boldly to the
paper with a stroke sufficiently wide to show the hue. You
will see instantly if the color is of the desired depth or if

§3 WATER-COLOR RENDERING 21

too much of any one color is evident, and to counteract this.
dip into one or another of the colors, as the case may require,
and at once modify the color already applied. And so,
renewing the colors frequently and taking care not to allow
the colors to become too neutral by brushing, proceed until
the desired area is covered. After gaining more confidence
through experience, the student can work more directly from
the pans of color.

35. Each one of these grays is capable of many varia-
tions of tone and hue. A light tone is more easily handled
than a dark one, and a very dark tone made with one wash
is not practicable. The ones shown in the chart are about
as deep as they can be made in single washes, without
producing a muddy effect.

The combinations of colors used in Fig. 4 are as follows:
(/) gamboge, new blue, and crimson; [g) gamboge, Prussian
blue, and crimson; (//) yellow ocher, new blue, and crimson;
(/) crimson and emerald green; (J) new blue and orange;
(k) vermilion and emerald green; (/) Vandyke brown and
emerald green; (;;/) burnt sienna and new blue; {>/) burnt
sienna and Prussian blue.

Make the first one at the upper left-hand corner slightly
reddish in hue, the next slightly yellowish, and the next
bluish or purplish. These are made by mixtures of three
colors. In general practice, never use more than three colors
to match any hue, and if possible do it with two colors. The
remaining six wrashes are combinations of two colors, and all
will be found useful in the rendering of the different subjects
to follow. These will be found easier to manage than the
three-color grays.

Any two opposite, or approximately opposite, pigments
will combine to form a gray. Emerald green and crimson
make a pretty, transparent gray, which always has an iri-
descent quality on account of the separation of the pigments,
due to their chemical composition. Emerald green and
vermilion refuse to combine thoroughly, even when stirred,
and make a useful gray, though it is apt to be somewhat

•2-2 ELEMENTS OF §3

opaque. New blue and chrome orange combine very easily,
and readily neutralize each other. Vandyke brown and
emerald green readily combine and make a very pleasing
green gray. Burnt sienna with new blue and with Antwerp
blue forms beautiful and useful grays.

The blended stripe (o) shows new blue graded into burnt
sienna. Start with the blue at the top, carry the pure color
down about 1 inch, then gradually add the other color, first
allowing the blue to predominate, and then the sienna, until
finally the pure sienna is used. Graded washes like this of
all six of the two-color grays mentioned should be made for
reference, and the exercise of making them will assist con-
siderably in familiarizing the student with his color. It is
imperative that the student should know his colors and know
what they will do when combined, in order to readily match
colors. When starting to paint a picture, sure judgment
and speedy decisions are at a premium.

FOURTH EXERCISE

36. These figures illustrate three kinds of contrast.
Contrast of tone, as at (g), Fig. 4, is made by carrying a
light wash of color over the whole square, then covering the
left half of the space with a deeper tone of the same color.
Any color may be used for this, provided there is enough
contrast. Burnt sienna is chosen in this case for the sake of
harmony with other colors on the plate. Contrast of hue,
shown at (;) , is made by placing a wash of reddish gray, made
of crimson and emerald green, in juxtaposition with a greenish-
gray wash of equal value made with emerald green and burnt
sienna. There should be no contrast but that of color in this
one. Contrast of hue and tone, which is illustrated at (s), is
made by placing a wash of gamboge in juxtaposition with
one of bluish violet made with crimson and new blue.

FIFTH EXERCISE

37. To make this scale, shown at (/>), of yellow, start
at the top with a thin wash of gamboge and carry it down
1 inch, then increase the strength to match the second tint,

§3 WATER-COLOR RENDERING 28

and continue 1 inch more. For the next tone, the full
strength of the gamboge is used. To continue with the
two shades, add to the yellow enough violet, previously
prepared from new blue and crimson, to make the desired
depth, and continue 1 inch more; then add more violet for
the last and deepest tone. This ought to be done rapidly
enough and with sufficient color to make it blend nicely.

The student should also make scales of each of the
primary and secondary colors, adding water to the normal
color for the tints, and forming the shades by the addition
of the complementary color, care being taken not to allow
the complementary color to completely neutralize the given
color. For instance, in the scale of yellow the shades must
be reasonably yellow; that is, they must look like yellow
seen in two degrees of shadow and must not appear purplish
or entirely neutral gray.

When the color chart is complete, place the name, class
letter and number, and the date in their usual places, and
send the plate in for correction.

fOO^01

Fig. l

THE NEW YORK
PUBLIC LIBRARY

AST.or, LENOX AND
T7LDEN F^UNHi |

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■

YORK

UC LIBRARY

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RENDERING IN WATER COLOR

INTRODUCTION

1. Textures. — Before beginning the rendering of an
object in color, the student should examine it carefully with
his eyes open to color impressions and his mind as free
as possible from any preconceived notions as to what he
is going to see. Fig. 1 shows a glazed vase, the local color
of which is a deep red. It is placed in a strong light.
After determining the form and local color, the light, shade,
and cast shadow common to all opaque bodies, the student
will note a shiny high light, or reflection of the window, that
appears on the light side variously distorted, at every sharp
turn of the surface. This is at once a key to the texture
of the object — it is hard and shiny; in fact, it is a red mirror
reflecting more or less perfectly every object, every surface
around it, and not only the form but also the color of such
objects and surfaces. Examine this high light closely and
you will find in it a faithful reproduction in color of whatever
of the landscape is visible through the window. What has
become of the local color red at this point? It is absolutely
overcome by this reflection of strong light and does not
reach or affect the eye. There, then, is at least one spot on
this red vase that cannot be represented by red pigment.
But this is only the extreme case, for every inch of this
reflecting surface is similarly affected, the degree varying
according to the luminosity of the surface reflected. For
instance, the light gray surface, upon which the vase rests,
is reflected part way up from the base, and though affecting
the red decidedly by making it lighter and grayer, it does

For notice of copyright, see page immediately following the title page
§4

2 RENDERING IN WATER COLOR §4

not entirely overcome it, as does the brilliant light from
the window. Observe the effect of the light and shade aside
from the reflections. The red on the side nearest the
window is decidedly lighter than that on the side turned
away from the light; at some point part way between these
two extremes, we will find the purest red, thus reaching the
conclusion that the strong light has a tendency to weaken
the color as well as to make it lighter, and that the shade
both dulls the color and makes it darker.

This is a very good example of how the local color of an
object may almost completely give way to other colors than
its own. The apparent color, then, is not simply red, but red
with some decided variations, and it is with this apparent
color that painters have to deal. It is a well-known fact that
a trained perception is necessary for the instant observation
of this apparent color, for the eye of the beginner often
refuses to see it until it has been pointed out repeatedly.
Remember that every object which we shall ever have
to paint is affected in its color somewhat like this red vase,
which was chosen as an extreme type on account of its
strong local color and its reflecting quality.

2. The color of an unpolished and unglazed object,
such as Fig. 2, is very much less affected by the color of the
light or of the surroundings. It is not so much a mirror
as the other, as it has a different texture — there is no shiny
high light here. There is, however, a much more decided
light-and-dark division than in the shiny object, the light and
shade being undisturbed by any sharp reflections of other
objects. Besides, the shadow side of the object is duller
and cooler than the side in light, the purest color being in the
half light between them. The shadow, then, cannot be cor-
rectly produced by a stronger tone of the same color as
the part in light. This the beginner almost invariably tries
to do, and as a consequence his work looks tame and dull
in comparison to the work of the artist, who recognizes
that the diminishing of the light and the law of contrast
necessarily produces a change in the color. By the law

§4 RENDERING IN WATER COLOR 3

of contrast, we know that this yellowish-gray color in the
light must call to our vision a hint of its opposite — purplish
gray. We, therefore, learn to modify the shadow color
by the addition of the color that is approximately comple-
mentary to the local color of the object; if the local color is
cool look for a warm shadow, and vice versa.

Observe a dull and comparatively colorless object- -the
rusty iron lock, Fig. 3. To the untrained eye it presents
no local color, and the novice would probably render it with-
out color except in the rusty spots, which appear a reddish
brown, black serving his purpose for everything else. But
this rendering would not satisfy the eye trained to see color,
for the charm that comes from the slightly varying hues
of the delicate grays will be entirely lost. One may always
depend on this fact: that everything in nature is colored
except absolute darkness; there can be no absolute black
without entire absence of lignt. Examine a piece of dull,
black cloth hung in folds in a good light. Is it black all
over? Decidedly not. The light parts are a bluish gray
and cannot be correctly rendered without using color. Even
the darker parts at a little distance are not absolutely black;
they could be rendered correctly without using a particle
of black pigment. The sooner we accept this fact that every-
thing in nature is colored, and begin to look for and analyze
these various subtle hues in the comparatively colorless
objects, the sooner our eyes become sensitive to color and
we are able more quickly to match and record the colors
that we see. So in this old iron latch let us look for a
variety of hues of gray. There are, perhaps, not 2 square
inches of the surface exactly alike in hue or tone, and it is
in just this gradation of color and tone that most of the
charm lies.

The law of simultaneous contrast is of great assistance to
us here. Having seen how readily the neutral colors arc
changed by varying the stronger colors surrounding them,
we may know when seeking to determine a neutral color in
nature what hue to expect by noting the surrounding color and
thinking of its opposite. No matter what we paint we will be,

4 RENDERING IN WATER COLOR §4

as has been said before, chiefly concerned with these modified
hues, so let us observe them in everything about us, analyzing
and matching- them mentally and especially noting the differ-
ence in hue between the light and the dark sides of objects.
When confronted with a new subject the student should ask
himself: (1) What is its general hue? (2) What color ought I
expect to find associated with that hue? (3) What is the char-
acter of the surface — what is its texture — polished, smooth,
and dull, or broken and rough? (4) How does this particular
quality of the surface affect the color? (5) Are the imme-
diate surroundings of the object forceful enough in color to
noticeably affect it by simultaneous contrast, or vice versa?
For instance, if the object is a neutral gray placed against a
bright-green ground, is there not a tinge of the opposite
color, red, distinctly visible in the gray, or vice versa? A
white cardboard partially turned away from the light makes
a beautiful transparent gray, against which experiments in
noting these subtle contrasts may be performed for the
education of the eye. Place variously colored objects against
it one at a time, and look at them steadily until the eye
grasps the relation of the two. The change will be most
noticeable when an object of one color is quickly replaced by
one of an opposite color.

3. A most interesting problem, and one that often proves
exceedingly puzzling to a beginner, is the object that is
colorless and transparent, such as a clear glass bottle or
tumbler, or one partially filled with water or a colored fluid,
as shown in Fig. 4 (b) and (c) . In the case of the clear
glass, the color is entirely dependent on the surroundings.
A very important point, in this case, is the lack of any dis-
tinct divisions of light from shade, the light penetrating the
transparent material and illuminating what ought to be the
shadow side, so that very often the portion of the object
immediately surrounding the high light is darker than the
side opposite the light. When colored fluid is added, as at
(r), or when the glass has a color of its own, as at (a), the
problem is changed. If the fluid is opaque, the subject is

§4 RENDERING IN WATER COLOR 5

similar to that of the opaque glazed object; if transparent,
it is the same as the colored glass.

The old rusty lantern, Fig. 4 {</), is of a very different
color from what it apparently would be if the background
and surroundings were of a different color. The local color
does not become entirely lost in the deep shadow, but tends
strongly to purple where it contrasts with the greenish
background.

Much more benefit will be derived from making studies
from similar objects to the ones mentioned than from copy-
ing these illustrations. We would recommend that a similar
subject be procured and placed in as nearly as possible
the same conditions as the one described, in order to more
intelligently follow the description. One will gain, in this
way, very much more than by mere copying, in which the
effect may be readily produced by matching color for color
and tone for tone, as they are found, without thinking at all
of the construction of the original, or of why this color is
here and that there, why this light is opposed to that dark,
etc., all of which has been carefully observed and considered
by the person that painted the original. Copying from the
flat, while it helps considerably in the way of handling, does
not materially aid the perception, and for that reason the
student is urged to search carefully for these things in nature
and learn for himself.

RENDERING IN WATER COLOR

§4

DRAWING PLATES

by 10 inches. First, draw the torn

usinB a soft penc, about J B "Is. Make an outline
m aTitte a he afferent regions of eolor that can be

maP' Vlown in Vt 5, including the form of the cast shadow.
nST"^ and ^J-S,^

must the paper be injured by excess we ^sure
Therefore, the iines ™»t be ^ aud sof t m ^^ ,f
pressure on to. papei so Ohat th^y ^ ^.^

esSary w,A a soft rubber ^

heavy lines after tne color ^ drawing

acts as a fixative. A good way is t^ make a pe ^^

on => P-- °* *» P^affect tr ans nrbe made by hlack-

water-color paper. A direct trails pencil,

1 f 4-i, Q tViin naner with a sott leaa peucn,

;™.:b: ". «:' ,t,S 55, - »*. «» - x

tracing; therefore, the drawing should be caierai y
Fig 6 (a). This must he done quickly so as to allow of

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PUBLIC LIBRARY

§4 RENDERING IN WATER COLOR 7

blending the inner edge with a wet brush. Practice this
several times on a separate piece of paper if not successful
at first. A somewhat lighter wash of the same color may
then be carried down the light side and its inner edge
blended in the same way. This first wash fixes the division
of light from dark, suggests the rounding of the surface, and
serves to modify the red that will be washed on later.
Although this wash may be entirely covered by the red, it
modifies the red and all subsequent washes.

When the green wash has dried, mix the color of the lightest
tone of the red and wash over the whole surface except the
shiny high lights, which must be left white and sharply
defined to the last, as at (/>)• Where the table is reflected,
this color should be modified by the addition of yellow.
These two washes have fixed the form of the object and are
a foundation on which to work. Next, the general tone of
the background must be matched and the color washed on
freely, changing it slightly in hue during the process so as
to avoid monotony. Bring the background color carefully
up to the edge of the vase without overlapping. Where
the background meets the horizontal surface, do not stop,
but lighten or darken the wash as the case may require and
go right on, allowing the two tones to blend, as shown in (r).

5. The painting of background will present some diffi-
culties. It will be difficult at first to handle a background
of any considerable depth of tone. If the first ground is
too light, allow it to dry and carry another wash boldly over
it, with as little brushing as possible, so as not to disturb
the under color. If the washes overlap where they join, the
result is a little hard line of darker tone that is sometimes
displeasing; but this is often unavoidable and one must
make the best of it, softening it with a wet brush after the
wash is dry. Greater skill in the handling of the brush
makes it possible to join the washes with scarcely any over-
lapping; indeed, it is often advisable to leave a slight edge
of white between the washes, especially in the places where
the hard line of dark would be very objectionable. Under

8 RENDERING IN WATER COLOR §4

fortunate conditions, two adjacent washes may be dragged
together while both are wet. Very often a light background
may be carried over the space to be occupied by the object,
leaving out only the light parts. Always start with the wash
that will give the most effect in one painting. If it is a dark
object placed against a light ground, start the object first,
and vice versa. In many cases it is possible to start with
the background and carry it over the shadow side of the
object, blending the edge toward the light. Whenever pos-
sible, this should be done when the background and the
object contrast in color as well as in tone. If the ground is
not a very dark one, try to strike the proper tone in -one
painting, as this maintains freshness of color.

The white paper is now all covered except at the high
lights. These are not to be touched till everything else is
done. The drawing at this stage looks rather flat and
weak, a mere ghost of a vase, and requires the addition of
the darker accents to give it substance, as shown at (d).
Observe that the deepest and purest red is not in the shade
but on the light side of the vase in the deeper reflections.
The shade may now be strengthened by another wash of
modified red; this time carry the wash over the cast shadow,
adding more green to that part so that the result may be a
greenish, instead of a reddish gray. The shadow grades in
tone and becomes lighter as it recedes from the object. The
edge of the table shows distinctly reflected a short distance
below the largest high light; above this edge a deeper and
purer wash of red may be laid on. It will surround the high
light and blend softly into the lighter tint above, and also
into the shadow side. It is only where it encounters the
reflection of another surface that the edge will be sharply
defined, as it is at the bottom. Next, put in the accents
around the high lights on the neck and at the base, deepen the
tone of the background, if necessary, and add the light tints
of color in the reflections of the windows, as shown in Fig. 1.

This method of beginning with the complementary color
is serviceable in rendering objects of a positive color, and is
given first on account of the quick results obtained. As the

$4 RENDERING IN WATER COLOR 9

student attains greater freedom through study and practice,
he will discover many things for himself, and his work will
gain individuality as he progresses. The matching of each
color must be done by the eye, aided by the knowledge
gained in the experiments with the color charts. The colors
used in this rendering are crimson for the red, Prussian blue
and gamboge for the green, and the three combined for the
more neutral parts — the background and foreground.

6. Next, draw the stone mug, Fig. 2, making it about
6 inches high. This object rests on a sheet of white paper,
and is placed against a background of the same material,
slightly turned from the light. It forms a study of com-
paratively neutral colors, and can be painted with several of
the grays that were made on the color chart; there is not a
spot of pure color on it. The background is so light that
we will not consider it at first, but will begin by painting
a wash of yellow gray, made with gamboge, Prussian blue,
and crimson, over all the surface except the top and the
light edge of the handle. With a wet brush, wipe off a little
of this color where the soft high light occurs, taking note
that the edges of this light are not sharply defined, as
in the red vase; this denotes a surface only slightly shiny.
When the first wash is dry, carry another of decidedly
purplish gray over the shadow side and blend it gradually
toward the high light; this will round the surface somewhat
and separate the light from the dark side. Do this also
on the handle, grading the wash to yellow gray at the
lower end. Next, paint the portion of the interior surface
showing at the top; begin at the left side of the ellipse
with a wash of new blue, slightly modified with burnt
-sienna, carry it one-third of the way across, and then use
almost pure burnt sienna, making it slightly lighter in tone
as it approaches the other side. Wipe out the little spot of
high light with a clean brush after the wash has become
slightly set. This region is the darkest part of the drawing.
It should be finished, if possible, in this one graded wash,
which, if well done, makes a pleasing contrast with the lighter

10 RENDERING IN WATER COLOR §4

outside surface and expresses the hollowness of the cylinder.
The rim may be washed in immediately while this wash is
wet; at the ends, where contrast of tone is desired, the washes
are separated by a fine line of white, but in the center, where
the tones are about equal, they may be allowed to run together;
the front edge is left entirely white. Paint the cast shadow
with a wash of new blue modified by a little crimson and
gamboge, which should be strong enough to about equal
the tone of the shadow side of the mug and handle. Soften
the edges with a wet brush where they appear blended. Put
in the background with a thin wash of new blue slightly mod-
ified with crimson and yellow ocher. When the horizontal
surface (foreground) is reached, gradually add more yellow,
making a graded wash from cool to warm color, which causes
this surface to apparently recede. When this is dry, sep-
arate the two planes by another wash, which need not be
carried all the way to the top. The darker accents of pur-
plish gray must now be put on the curve of the handle and
on the surface of the cylinder midway between the high
light and the right-hand edge; these washes must be blended
toward the high light on one side and toward the reflected
light on the other. The bands may be made with new blue
and a little crimson, which must be considerably grayed on
the shadow side. The high light on the handle may be
softened by a touch of light yellowish gray. In all of these
exercises, be as free as possible, using your knowledge of
the handling of wash to bring out the best qualities of the
medium. Remember that water color is only colored wash
drawing and that the handling is almost identical. The
charm often depends quite as much on the little eccentricities
of the wash itself as on the evidences of masterly control.
Freedom and the ability to appreciate the qualities of the
medium that make it distinct from all others can only be
attained by practice. Cultivate boldness and learn to take
advantage of accidents of color rather than be discouraged
by them. One always has recourse to the sponge when the
work is hopeless, and a drawing partly sponged out often
makes a very suggestive ground on which to work.

§4 RENDERING IN WATER COLOR 11

7. The next subject is an old rusted door latch, Fig. •".,
very simple in form and easy to draw, though the coloring
is rather subtle. As a whole it is a purplish-gray object
against a yellowish-gray ground, but both the latch and the
old board against which it is seen are so full of delicate
gradations of color that there are hardly 2 square inches
exactly alike in hue. Before painting this, try to find a
similar subject, such as an old horseshoe hung on a rough,
unpainted board, and try to see for yourself this charm of
color. You will probably say that this color is exaggerated.
Place the drawing plate and the subject side by side and
look at them from a distance; then paint the subject with the
flat grays that are apparent, and compare the two.

After drawing the lock about 2-j inches high all of the
iron and the cast shadows can be painted in with burnt
sienna and new blue, the proportions varying slightly as
the gray becomes warmer or cooler. Lay in the flat planes
with one wash each, if possible. It will not be possible
to make the colors vary in exactly the same places and forms
as in the original; this is not important, but get the right
tone and the general color effect. For the background
use gamboge, new blue, and crimson; keep the colors in
separate compartments of the color box, use a large brush,
and dip into them successively, flooding the color on gen-
erously with the board held rather flat. This is an excellent
exercise in putting on a large wash of broken color. Leave
the space for the crack in the door and put in the dark after-
wards with new blue and burnt sienna, leaving the little edge
of light on the right-hand side. Make the dark shadows and
accents slightly greenish; try to make one wash do for each
and make them rather deeper than those on the plate. All
work should be brighter and more snappy in contrast than the
reproduction copied; the edges of washes should be more
evident also, and the handling more vigorous, for these
reproductions are apt to be softer than the original work.

8. The fourth figure of this drawing plate is a copper
tankard, Fig. 7, that we may consider a type of shiny-metal

12 RENDERING IN WATER COLOR §4

objects. In texture, it somewhat resembles the red vase, but
the surface has not so high a polish, and, therefore, does not
reflect light or color to an equal extent. It is placed in a
strong light against a light gray ground. Draw the tankard
about 6 inches high and locate all the details, as with the
vase, Fig. 5. The high lights are quite evident, and are of
the first importance, for the first wash must allow for them.
Begin either with this color or leave a space of light
to be colored after the stronger washes have been applied.
If the object is very shiny the latter method will be safer, as
it is easy to misjudge the amount of light or color and make
the first wash too dull or too dark, thus losing the brightness
of the metal. Only three colors — orange, new blue, and crim-
son— are used to render the copper. The body of the tankard
is painted first in the following manner: A wash of the color
for the high light is carried boldly and quickly down the sur-
face, covering a space rather wider than that to be occupied
by the light; the color is then quickly modified by dipping
into the blue and crimson, and this is carried as boldly down
each side of the first stroke before the latter has had time to
dry, and afterwards is continued out to either edge, including
the spout. (The wash can be stopped at the base, where the
high light breaks, and the base painted separately.) The
modeling and the shininess are suggested in this first wash,
though it is not final except in the light, but must be
strengthened by other washes. Before doing anything
more to this, however, the first washes should be applied
to the lid, the handle, and the portion of the interior surface
showing at the top; this latter can be finished in one wash,
as in the stone mug, the dark side being started with
strong color and gradually blended into the reddish orange
of the light side, again becoming slightly darker and bluer
as it is carried into the spout. The pi-actice of blending
from one color to another in one wash is very useful in
cases of this kind. A wash of greenish gray, made by
combining emerald green and crimson, should be applied
to the background and foreground, and a stronger wash with
new blue added can be used for the cast shadow.

: -■-

§4 RENDERING IN WATER COLOR 13

The white paper being covered, a stronger wash of the
three colors with more red and blue than orange is applied
to the body of the tankard; begin next to the high light and
carry it to the edges; then soften into the light where a sharp
edge is not desired. The irregularity of the edge of the
light near the bottom is due to a slightly dented surface.

Little need be said in regard to the small details of accent,
except that they should be faithfully studied and carefully
placed; the beginner, as a rule, takes good care that these
parts of his drawing, at least, are not slighted, and is apt
in his solicitude to give them undue prominence. Try to
analyze each touch and decide before applying it, why it is
there and what is its relative importance to the drawing as a
whole. Note that the accenting darks are not alike in tone
or color, but that each touch varies slightly in itself, either
being lightened by the addition of water or modified by
another color. The lights as well as the darks have their
gradations and should be carefully noted. The light is more
brilliant in the forward parts than farther back.

DRAWING PLATE, TITLE: BRUSH WORK AND

FLOWERS
9. Flowers and plant forms make excellent subjects for
study in water colors. One of the best means of training
the hand and the eye is in brush, drawing — that is, in the
painting of forms in color with no previous pencil drawing, or
with only the general directions of the lines lightly indicated.
The point of the brush is not first carried around the outline,
but the whole form is broadly washed in with the flat of the
brush. Flowers and other plant forms lend themselves very
readily to this kind of study, as any slight variation of form
due to awkwardness in the handling of the brush does not
necessarily destroy the character. With a little practice one
soon learns how much more freedom the brush allows and
how much more rapidly a result may be obtained. A single
touch of the brush will often suffice to indicate a petal, while
a bold stroke will represent a stem or a leaf; besides, the

14 RENDERING IN WATER COLOR §4

freehand brush stroke is much more expressive than the
pencil outline carefully filled in with a flat wash; the latter
lacks that little charm which comes from the color's doing
the unexpected. Water color is not inclined to run perfectly-
flat — it is against its nature; the fact that every touch grades
in itself by settling to one side is a suggestion to the
student to recognize and profit by this characteristic of the
medium. In no other practice does one learn so quickly to
turn to account this quality. Nature's forms are full of
exquisitely delicate modulations of tone and color, and these
are undoubtedly rendered with more spontaneity by graded
color washes freely applied in this way than by any other
means at our command. In Fig. 8 are shown brush draw-
ings of a number of simple sprays of different flowers and
other natural forms executed by students; such forms as
these should be chosen for first study rather than com-
plex subjects.

The Japanese are our teachers in this style of brush work.
As a race they seem instinctively to love flowers and all
natural forms; and when one considers that they are taught
from their youth to use the brush to write with, there is
little wonder that their artists have taught the world how to
appreciate these forms and how to interpret and apply them
in a decorative way. In recent years Japanese art has had
a tremendous decorative influence on that of the Western
world. Western artists have suddenly awakened to the fact
that these people have the most refined sense of fitness, and
that as a nation they are probably the most artistic in the
world. The following incident illustrates the general art
impulse in Japan: A company of men were walking along
a road when a great hawk alighted in a near-by tree. Instead
of drawing guns to shoot the bird or frightening it away with
stones, they immediately drew out their brushes and paper
and proceeded to sketch him as he sat pluming himself.

It is not necessary that one should work exactly like the
Japanese in order to paint flowers well, though he will be
greatly benefited, and his work will profit by the addition of
a little of their spirit. If one would paint flowers well he

$4 RENDERING IN WATER COLOR i:,

must learn to love them, appreciate the graceful lines of
their growth, their delicacy of texture, and their charming
variety of tone and color. It is safe to say that the majority
of people love flowers for their own sakes, so that it requires
only a calling of the attention to them as a subject of study
to awaken a special interest, which, if the study is carried
on, deepens into understanding and appreciation.

This instruction will not deal with the painting of flowers
in groups of still life, which treats of the general effect of
masses of flowers, but rather with decorative painting, which
requires a more intimate knowledge of individual flowers
and their manner of growth. The designer, the decorative
painter, and the illustrator have constant need of this knowl-
edge, and the study of flowers for the purpose of decorative
and conventional treatment forms no small part of their
training. The designer draws as much of his inspiration
from natural forms as he does from historic ornament; the
decorator uses floral forms as much as he does figures and
landscapes; and the illustrator uses decorative flowers
in posters, ornamental covers and borders, head- and tail-
pieces, etc. Practice rendering simple forms, such as shown
in Fig. 8. Make them with single strokes of the brush as
much as possible and use the colors direct from the box,
mixing them as they are applied.

10. Fig. 9 is a reproduction of brush drawings of flowers
from nature made by students of applied design. Fig. 10
illustrates how naturalistic studies are translated into deco-
rative and conventional forms.

For first practice it is well to copy good facsimiles of
flower painting, not pictures of masses of flowers but deco-
rative sprays in which a few individuals play an important
part and a good deal of the character of the flower is shown.
Study from life should also be immediately begun. Flowers
and other plant forms are almost always at hand, and while
all are not equally attractive they make interesting subjects
for study; many of the field flowers, grasses, and weeds and
their seed vessels make exceedingly interesting subjects and

16 RENDERING IN WATER COLOR §4

can be found in almost any locality; house plants can be
studied as they grow. Cut flowers change rapidly, but most
of them keep long enough to make a sketch. Choose at first
simple, single flowers that have color which may be rep-
resented on white paper without a background; do not
attempt elaborate flowers like the garden rose and the
chrysanthemum.

Place a single flower, like the wild rose or cosmos, against
a white ground so that the relation of its tones to the white
paper may be studied; block in the forms, very lightly,
with the pencil, indicating the center of the flower and the
radiating lines separating the petals. Let the pencil lines
be merely a guide to the proportions and the placing of the
parts, and depend on the brush to fill in and correct the form.
Paint the center first and then each petal. The first painting
should show the saucer shape of the flower. A dark petal
may be kept separated from a light one by a tiny line of
dry paper. Cast shadows and dark accents may be strength-
ened afterwards. Fig. 11 shows a cosmos blossom rendered
in two stages in the manner above described.

Leaves should be painted before the stems. The begin-
ner is apt to paint the stems first and sometimes gets more
than he wants, forgetting that stems are covered in many
places by leaves. A single brush stroke often suffices for a
simple leaf, or when one side is in light and one in shade,
two strokes separated by a thin line of paper; it is some-
times more expedient to carry the lighter color over all
and make the separation with another wash, as in Fig. 8.
Only very conspicuous veining should be indicated and then
never by means of hard lines; one will observe that in nearly
all leaves the veins are made evident by little planes of dark
and light coming together; sometimes the dark plane is quite
thin but it never forms a wiry line.

Do not draw flowers too small, rather make them larger
than life size unless they are very large; very small flowers
do not make good subjects for decorative painting. Give
stems their proper width, making them neither thick and
clumsy nor shriveled; green stems should look sappy — woody

S4 RENDERING IN WATER COLOR 17

stems are full of character and require close study. Special
note should be taken of the manner of branching of stems and
the changes of direction that they take at the joints. Although
botanical correctness is not essential in flower painting, ac-
knowledge of botany is helpful in that it assists the obser-
vation and tends to prevent glaring mistakes in structure.
The local color of the blossom may always be carried
throughout the stems and the leaves. When painting a red
flower, look for red in the whole plant — you will surely
And it; this helps to hold the color together and prevents
glaring contrast. Beginners paint leaves too green; they
fail to note the effect of light and shade on the local color.
The lights on shiny leaves are bluish, and sometimes almost
white. Light shining through a leaf makes it appear yellow-
ish green. Leaves in half light are a rich green, and in
shadow a dull, grayish green. Bright greens and strong
contrasts in leaves should be subdued in order that they may
not claim attention before the flowers. The management of
leaves and stems is usually more difficult than that of flowers,
because there are apt to be so many more of them that they
require some degree of elimination and arbitrary arrange-
ment. Forms may be kept in the background by reducing
their color and contrast of tone; this maybe seen in Fig. 12,
where the two rear flowers and one of the seed vessels have
been given this treatment.

11. Having practiced these simple sprays of flowers
repeatedly and thus acquired the ability to render them
fairly well, give attention to the pleasing arrangement of
floral forms in a given space, simplifying and idealizing
the forms themselves. Fig. 12 presents a study of single
hollyhocks drawn from life. This is one of the flowers
that wilt soon after being cut, so that it must be studied
as it grows. The study here given was made out in
the sunshine with an old gray fence for the background.
The hollyhock is a very decorative plant and, growing so
tall and straight, is readily adapted to an upright panel; it
has a remarkable variety of forms — buds, flowers, seed

18 RENDERING IN WATER COLOR §4

vessels, and leaves — each of which is interesting in itself
besides lending to the decorative effect of the whole.

The rendering of this study will be comparatively easy,
for the forms are very simple and the light and shade clearly
defined. Sketch the outline lightly, making the panel about
17 inches high. First paint the two important flowers in the
manner shown in the rendering of the cosmos, but with more
contrast, as this flower is deeper in color and in a much
stronger light than the cosmos. Begin the wash at the upper
edge of the flower and carry it to the edge of the shadow,
where it can be left sharply defined. Work around the light
forms in the center, but endeavor to paint some of their color
before the first wash is quite dry. Leave white paper for
the ends of the stamens and pistil and the highest light on
the petals immediately below the dark center. The texture
of these petals is somewhat similar to very delicate silk,
which accounts for the shiny high light and the number of
small, sharp planes.

As in the other studies, paint each form in its first stage;
go back to the most important one and finish that, then
the next in importance, and so on. Before painting the
leaves, note carefully their tones in relation to the back-
ground and to one another, also their diversity of color, the
difference in the color of the upper and under surfaces, etc.
When the entire spray has been painted, lay the drawing
nearly flat and wash on the light gray of the background
with a large brush; it should be carried carefully around the
forms with the exception of the two rear flowers and the
seed vessel that is in shade. Crimson and new blue may be
used in the flowers with some Vandyke brown in the deeper
touches; gamboge, with emerald green for the lighter greens
and with Prussian blue and some crimson for the darks; and
the same in light washes for the reddish gray on the leaves.
The background may be made with a thin wash of emerald
green and crimson.

Sketch Fig. 13 about 10 inches high. After careful study of
the color combinations, endeavor to reproduce the effect of the
flowers themselves rather than to copy the original study.

Fig. 14

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§ 1 RENDERING IN WATER COLOR 19

DRAWING PLATE, TITLE: DRAPERY

12. The beauty of the folds of drapery and its rich
variety of color and texture have made it a favorite study
with artists for centuries. It is only necessary to look at
the various reproductions of the old masters to see with
what loving care they treated the draperies in their pictures,
either when used upon figures or as accessories. Those of
Gothic and early Renaissance times are especially rich and
are often worked out in infinite detail, showing clearly the
elaborate patterns. The modern painter is chiefly concerned
with the color and texture, and if the goods have a decided
pattern it is suggested in a broad way, but is seldom worked
out. Drapery plays such an important part in art produc-
tions, that the artist must be thoroughly familiar with the
appearance and the main points of difference in various
fabrics. In rendering drapery, one of the chief considera-
tions is texture. The student has learned that texture is
made evident by the manner in which surfaces are affected
by the light; a hard, polished surface reflects the light
sharply, thereby making decided contrast and clear-cut
forms of light and dark, while a rough surface absorbs
the light and presents not sharp contrasts but soft gradations
from light to dark. In fabrics, silks and stains correspond to
the polished surfaces, and cotton and woolen goods of varying
•degrees of roughness correspond to the unpolished surfaces.

The expression of texture is a part of the drawing and can
be accomplished in black and white quite as well as in color,
for it depends on the placing of dark and light values.
Examine closely the four textures shown in Figs. 14, 15, 16,
and 17, which are reproductions from photographs of different
fabrics. Fig. 14 is a satin, which approaches nearest to a
polished surface in quality; note how sharply it reflects the
light and with what definition the various regions of light
.and dark are marked out. This characteristic makes this
texture much less difficult to render than some others, the
boldness of its planes being much easier to perceive and
to record than the subtle gradations of tone in the cotton

20 RENDERING IN WATER COLOR §4

goods. In the silk, Fig. 15, we note somewhat the same
qualities as in the satin; it is. however, a softer and more
pliable goods and is broken up into smaller planes, which
are apt to be angular and sharply defined. Velure, Fig. 16
(also velvet and plush) , has a peculiar shininess, which comes
not where one would naturally expect to find it — in the
direct light — but on the planes that are partly turned away
from the light and on the edges of the folds, where the light
strikes the sides of the masses of silken threads forming the
long pile. The planes turned directly toward the light are
apt to be very much darker; the blotchy effect is due to the
nap being disturbed in places, the surface being brushed in
different directions. The light and dark regions are sharply
defined, but the edges are more softly blended than in the
silk or satin. Cotton goods, shown in Fig. 17, hang in
rather limp folds; the masses are large and simple and the
contrast not great. Starched cotton goods exhibit more
sharply defined and angular planes.

13. The first drawing on the plate, Fig. 18, represents a
piece of old, blue velure, in which the pile has been disturbed
by considerable handling. Before copying this figure, secure,
if possible, a piece of goods of similar texture (not neces-
sarily of the same color), and drape it on a chair- somewhat
in the same manner; a small piece will answer even if it is
in the form of a garment. The student should do this with
all the different textures, and thus observe for himself the
points brought out.

To render the velure, first draw the different folds carefully,
twice the size of the original, and mark out the important
lights and darks with a pencil; then start at the highest part
with a wash of Prussian blue, slightly modified with emerald
green, and carry it over all the folds, adding a little orange
in the parts where that color is evident. When this wash is
dry, wipe out the high lights along the edges of the folds,
with a wet, bristle brush, being careful to observe the form
and the varying intensity of the lights. Use the bristle brush
gently, as the color comes off quite readily and care must be

Fig. 16

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$4 RENDERING IX WATER COLOR 21

taken not to rub up the surface of the paper. The two folds
to the extreme right have been purposely left in the condition
thus far described. Do not make this first wash absolutely-
unvarying in either hue or tone; and, on the other hand, do not
get a spotted effect by applying the added color too weak oi
too strong. After wiping out the lights, separate the folds by
the darker washes of Prussian blue and crimson, and Prus-
sian blue and orange. Notice how these deep washes vary
both in tone and color; every touch must be graded one way
or the other in order to get a good effect, so be prepared
when you begin to lay on a wash, even over a very small
area, to change its hue by touching in another color, or its
intensity by adding water. This point cannot be too often
repeated, for in its application lies the chief charm and most
essential characteristic of water color.

Take each fold separately and put on the deeper tones
that break its surface, noting where the edge of this broken
wash is sharp and where it has been blended by the touch of
a wet brush; the color is the same — Prussian blue with a
little crimson or orange. While doing this, do not fail to
observe carefully the relation between these dark touches
and the still darker ones in the deep folds, also the relation
between the various folds themselves; determine which is
the lightest, and at which point lies the strongest contrast.
When this is done, look over the whole drawing carefully,
strengthen the darks, if necessary, and soften any edges that
have been left too sharp. If occasionally a tiny speck of
white paper has been accidentally left, do not try to remove
it; no harm results if it is left unless the spots are too many,
or too large, when they will assume the importance of lights.
The suggestion of a chair is painted with burnt sienna,
Prussian blue, and crimson; the floor and background are
made with burnt sienna and Prussian blue. Render the
accessories as freely as possible, allowing the interest to
center in the drapery.

14. The next subject, Fig. 10, is a piece of delicate pink
satin draped in large folds that hang somewhat like a lady's

22 RENDERING IN WATER COLOR §4

skirt. It must be carefully drawn about twice this size and
all the little wrinkles mapped out, for in their form lies the
secret of the texture. The only colors used for the entire
drawing are crimson, new blue, and gamboge; it is a com-
bination of delicate hues of gray carefully put together.

A light tint may first be carried over the whole drawing,
toning down the white of the paper to the color of the high
lights; this, like all other first washes, must not be alike in
color all over, but must vary from warm to cool in different
parts. In the large fold to the left the red and yellow pre-
dominate, while in the center and in the shadows the blue is
more evident. Although the general hue of this drapery is
pink, it has the iridescent quality of mother of pearl, due
largely to its ability to reflect to quite an extent the sur-
rounding color; every change of plane, therefore, calls for
a slight change of color. Make the larger divisions, as in
the preceding study, by putting in the larger shadows, which
in this case are not deep in tone, but are full of a reflected
color from a greenish-yellow wall. Pay no attention to the
small reflected lights in the shadows — they may be wiped out
afterwards; think of the shadowed mass as a unit, concern-
ing yourself with the general tone and hue. Note that the
shadows are darker and purplish at the top, but gradu-
ally lighten and become greenish as they widen out toward
the bottom. Here we have again the gradation on which
depends, more than on the color itself, the quality of trans-
parency that is so charming in all painting.

Next study the fold to the left; note the ripple of light
and shade-like reflections in moving water. In applying the
wash, follow the forms of the dark carefully, leaving sharp
edges to be softened afterwards. Observe here, as in the
last study, that all edges are not softened, many being
clearly defined while others disappear altogether. In this
sharp definition of light, we see the resemblance to the
polished or glazed surface. The folds lying on the floor,
in the horizontal plane, are more generally dark than the
upright folds. Indicate this fact by a first general wash over
everything but the few high lights. The soft lights may

§4 RENDERING IN WATER COLOR 23

then be wiped out with a wet brush and the deeper tones
put in broadly with another wash. In this way study each
fold. Note how the largest mass of light near the middle
contrasts with the largest mass of dark, the shadow to the
left of it. Give this part your particular attention; make it
the center of interest. Note, also, how the two little accents
of dark at the bottom stand out as the chief darks in the
drawing; use them as a gauge by which to measure the
value of all other darks.

The three colors used throughout this drawing, when
properly combined, form grays that are easily managed,
especially in light washes, and although the hues employed
are quite varied, there should be no difficulty in matching
and applying them. If any part becomes muddy or if the
drawing becomes lost, carefully sponge it out without dis-
turbing the remaining parts, and paint it in afresh, trying to
avoid the cause of first difficulties. The background is made
with a wash of the same three colors. If possible, arrange
a piece of similar material and observe it studiously from
various points of view, noting how the change of position
affects the appearance of both color and texture. When
observed from the side opposite the source of light, the con-
trasts are strong and the lights fairly glitter; while when
viewed from the light side the effect is exceedingly soft and
delicate. The present study was made from a point at
about right angles from the source of light, from which
point the effect is usually the best, as the masses of light
and dark are, as a rule, better distributed.

15. Our next study, Fig. 20, is a piece of cotton drapery
(cheese cloth), of a light, violet hue, arranged on the lay
figure. The figure is arranged in a sitting posture in order to
give greater variety of planes. Note the three large divi-
sions: first, from the neck to the hips, a vertical plane;
second, from the hips to the knees a horizontal plane; and
last, from the knees to the feet, a vertical plane. The
large mass of light falls on the horizontal plane; observe
how the interest centers in this spot and how the eye

24 RENDERING IN WATER COLOR §4

unconsciously comes back and dwells on that centered high
light. The upper part of the figure fades gradually into the
background, both in color and in tone; this, with the soft,
greenish, reflected light on the right side and the shadowy
suggestions of arms at the sides, gives a peculiarly realistic
effect. We cannot help but feel that it is an object of three
dimensions. From the very first wash, begin to carry out
this feeling by suggesting the changes of plane. Use the
same three colors as in the last study for the beginning and
get a tone over the whole figure equal to the high lights of
the various planes. This should form a suggestive ground
on which to work. The larger soft darks should next be
painted, accenting still more the changes of plane; use for
these darks crimson and new blue, modified slightly with
emerald green. In the larger masses of dark, subtle grada-
tions of tone and color occur in one wash; this is nicely
shown in the fold that hangs from the right knee of the
figure to the foot. Mark how the dark increases as it
approaches the lights toward the bottom, lightens and
becomes redder in the reflected light on the inner plane
of the fold, and gradually melts into the deeper shadow
again, changing into greenish gray. These soft gradations
are characteristic of the shadowy parts of soft cotton drapery.
Stronger color may always be added to a wet wash. In the
upper left-hand corner of the drawing, the dark touches are
put in while the under wash is still wet; if a very soft-edged
dark is wanted it must be put in soon after the first wetting,
but if some definition is required the under wash must be
partially dry. Practice will enable one to know just when
to do this; although it is next to impossible to accurately
copy washes handled in this way, we may get the spirit
of them by following the same method.

Note that there is no lack of definition in the parts
approaching the lights; many of the washes are here left
with clean, sharp edges, but a gradation is made by inter-
posing a tone between the deeper touches and the lights.
Before putting the finishing touches on the drapery, carry
the first wash of greenish gray over the background and let

§4 RENDERING IN WATER COLOR 25

it go over the upper part of the figure to the waist, over the
suggestions of arms, and blend into the drapery on the
shadow side; use new blue and yellow ocher for this. In
the deeper washes some Prussian bine may be added, also
burnt sienna.

The whole treatment of this drapery must be free and
suggestive. If not successful with any part of it in the first
effort do not hesitate to wipe out that part at once and try
again. Remember that a partially sponged-out painting
makes a sympathetic ground on which to work again, and
this is especially so where softness and a certain air of
mystery are desired.

16. The fourth drawing on this plate, Fig. 21, part of a
window seat with pillows, shows a variety of colors and
textures. A similar study might be arranged in any home.
The strong light from the window falling across the couch
and near pillows, while the other end remains in shadow,
lends somewhat of a picture element to the study. Sketch
the drawing twice this size. Begin with the yellow curtain,
the large divisions of which can be laid in with gamboge
and a little orange for the lights, and orange grayed with
new blue for the darks. The brown pillow may then be
painted with burnt sienna and gamboge for the lights, and
this grayed by the addition of new blue and crimson as
the dark corner is approached. No account should be taken
of the detail in this hrst painting, the desire being to express
the rotundity of the object.

The green pillow may be painted next with a first wasli <>l
Prussian blue and yellow ocher, as this color best expresses
the rather opaque, soft green of the old faded denim.
The shaded lower plane may be put in with quite decided
purple. The pillow in the shadow is washed in with yellowish
gray, darker than the green one, thus establishing at once a
contrast of tone. The suggestion of shutters is painted
with Vandyke brown, crimson, and new blue; the dark-green
wall in shadow with Prussian blue, gamboge, and crimson.
The top of the couch is rendered with a light wash of

26 RENDERING IN WATER COLOR §4

gamboge, crimson, and new blue, which should be increased
in strength and carried over the front plane. A wash of
burnt sienna and new blue can be used for the floor. The
light edge of the woodwork to the left is painted with
Prussian blue and gamboge, and its shadow side with the
same colors grayed with crimson.

This covers all the ground. The high lights on the brown
pillow should now be carefully wiped out, the dark corner
strengthened, the dark accents put in, and the surface softened
and broken by wet touches of the lighter color; the material
represented here is velure. In the denim pillow, the forms
of the light and dark are more definite, as are also those in
the back pillow, which is covered with a thin, silky material.
The local color of this is much the lightest of the three, but
when seen in shade it appears much the darkest. After the
pillows are worked up into correct relation, the curtain, couch
cover, and floor should be painted over again, and the cast
shadow on the floor and the detail of the woodwork rendered.

The student should have no trouble in analyzing and
matching the colors used for the finishing touches; in fact, a
good deal of freedom may be employed, it being not at all
necessary to use identically the same colors as were used in
the original to produce an effect just as good. Make out of
this study as much of a picture as possible.

DRAWING PLATE, TITLE: FURNITURE

17. The rendering of common articles of furniture in
color forms part of the students' training in all technical
schools. The importance of this subject is shown by a glance
through a few illustrated books, or a tour through any picture
gallery or exhibition, with an eye to the furniture used as
accessories, where interiors are represented. A conscien-
tious painter or illustrator uses models for his furniture
with as much care and fidelity as he does for his figures and
costumes; if the setting demands the use of a certain historic
style, he makes himself familiar with that style, often spend-
ing much time hunting through museums for the desired

§4 RENDERING IN WATER COLOR 27

object from which to make sketches. If he can afford it,
he surrounds himself with quaint and decorative bits of
furniture, picked up from time to time; this is one of the
features of a successful artist's studio which makes it a
delightful place to visit. Fig. 22 shows a corner of the
interior of such a studio and the student may observe what
a varied collection is there gathered together.

The common articles of furniture in every-day use in every
household will be found interesting subjects of study, and
should be used as models. Draw the ones most interesting
in color, rendering them faithfully in the manner described.
Interesting grouping may be attempted and a pictorial ele-
ment thus introduced.

Old-fashioned articles of furniture are dear to the art
student, especially those belonging to the Colonial period,
a time that has recently been so beautifully reconstructed
and represented by some of our best modern illustrators.
The quaintness and simplicity of the forms, the richness of
the color and material, and the evidence of good, solid work-
manship in the construction of the articles are points that
appeal to the artist; and what studio or art school but has a
few of these precious old relics of a delightful period for use
as accessories or studies.

18. Fig. 23 is a study of an old walnut spinning wheel,
one of the most delightful forms of the old furniture, though
a rather complex object to draw. Note the color and the
broad, free handling. Interest is centered in the wheel and
its nearest supporting post, and there the color is richer
and more varied. In the receding parts the color is cooler
and the forms are not so strongly modeled; this increases
the appearance of reality, making the nearer parts stand out.
Like most furniture it has a polished surface, which accounts
for its many shiny lights and its play of color. Though the
object is generally brown in color, blue and bluish gray arc
seen in many parts. We know this to be the reflection of a
bluish light, probably the sky, and may expect to see the
same bluish light on all dark furniture when illuminated by

28 RENDERING IN WATER COLOR §4

daylight. The table and the rocking chair are evidences
of this. Four colors were used to render this object: new
blue, crimson, burnt sienna, and Vandyke brown. The grays
are made by combinations of brown and blue. For the
background a touch of Prussian blue and of yellow ocher
will be needed.

This cut is reduced to about one-fourth the size of the
original drawing.

Fig. 24 represents an original design by a student for
a desk in the Gothic style. It is drawn in front and side
elevation, and has an arbitrary color scheme representing
oak. Designs for furniture are usually rendered in this
manner. The drawings show a plan and two elevations,
as in Fig. 25, or occasionally two elevations only, as in
Fig. 24. It is well for the artist to become familiar with
the rapid sketching of such details in simple elevation
instead of in perspective, as greater accuracy can thereby
be attained and the sketches can be redrawn in perspective
at any time they may be needed as accessories in a picture.
For practice, take any piece of furniture, such as an old
chair, bureau, desk, or table. Carefully sketch two eleva-
tions of it — or three if necessary — and then render it in
color, endeavoring to secure the general effect rather than
the details of light and shade. If the principal measure-
ment of the object now be marked on the sketch, it will
serve for future use quite as well as would the original
object and is usually much easier to obtain. Fig. 25 shows
a plan and elevations of a hall chest, in walnut, with carved
ornament in Italian Renaissance style. In this case the plan
is introduced in order to show the construction of the chest,
the projection of the moldings, etc., and would be necessary
in any design intended as a guide by which the chest was to
be constructed. For general art accessories, however, the
elevations alone are sufficient, unless the object is very
irregular in plan.

The subject of furniture design cannot be touched on in
this Section. These examples of rendering by pupils are
inserted to show that there is such a branch of craftsmanship,

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$4 RENDERING IN WATER COLOR 29

and that the rendering is similar to that made from the
object. The designer, therefore, must be familiar with color,
with rendering, and with the appearance and color of the
various woods employed in furniture manufacture. His
sketch must be truthful enough to fairly represent the
finished article.

Before beginning the rendering of the next plate, con-
sider the relation of this subject to the two immediately
preceding. A piece of furniture is only an object, more
complex in form than the single objects that have heretofore
been painted, and its rendering involves almost identically
the same problems that were then met with. There are
varieties of textures to represent, though the polished sur-
face is most common. Textile fabrics are so intimately asso-
ciated with furniture, both as part of the objects — as in
upholstered articles — and as accessories, that the knowledge
of their texture already gained will be found very useful.

The details of furniture are often very trying and require
much patience, especially the common chair, which has many
small spindles. Some students are inclined to loose patience
over the drawing of this unprepossessing but indispensable
article. But patience finally rewards them and when one has
mastered the perspective of the legs, the peculiar foreshort-
ening of the irregular seat and the curved back with the
spindles, he is prepared to meet any problem in the drawing
of furniture. This applies to rendering also. ( >ne is inclined
to turn with relief from the painting of small things to those
having large, simple masses, but the training received in this
work, which is so exacting, fits one for the broader and
more pleasant things to come.

19. The four subjects chosen for the drawing plate arc
made from articles common to almost every household, so
that similar objects may be observed and rendered for prac-
tice. The first subject is the study of a common «.ak armchair
with a green cushion, Fig. 26. With the golden yellows of
the oak and soft, yellow green of the cushion, one naturally
looks for an association of purple grays, which are sure to be

30 RENDERING IN WATER COLOR §4

found when these colors are involved. This purplish gray not
only adds to the appearance of reality, but completes a very
pleasing- harmony; it is evident both in shadows on the cush-
ions and on the woodwork. Note its appearance on the nearer
arm of the chair, which is slightly polished and reflects the
background color. The cushion is of lusterless cloth, such
as denim, and, being somewhat faded, shows quite a range
from cool to warm green, which makes it much more inter-
esting than if it were one color all over. This accidental
color may be slightly exaggerated to emphasize the principal
point of interest.

Sketch this figure in pencil, making it about 10 inches high.
First paint the washes on the woodwork. Start with the
uprights of the back and note the difference in strength
between the near and the far post. Leave the little high
lights at the top. Use yellow ocher, gamboge, and burnt
sienna in the woodwork, modifying the yellow with blue and
red for the dark parts. Where the tone is not too dark, as
in the horizontal member at the back, the gray spindles, and
the light planes of the arms, try to secure it with one wash.
Suggest the rounding of the post and spindles, as far as
possible, in the first painting by adding some of the purple
to the dark side while the other color is wet; this may be
strengthened in the second painting. Paint a wash over the
background and floor before the final painting of the wood-
work, and also render the cast shadow. The soft greens of
the cushion are best made with yellow ocher and Prussian
blue, and if the purple is touched in while the first wash is
still damp it will be sufficiently grayed by mixing with the
green. Observe that the cooler green is at the back part of
the cushion; this helps to make that part recede. The very
darkest accents in the drawing will require Prussian blue
and crimson, as the new blue is not powerful enough to give
deep tones.

20. The second object on the plate, Fig. 27, is an old,
upholstered rocking chair of mahogany. The dark-red and
purplish tones of the wood form a pleasing contrast to the

$4 RENDERING IN WATER COLOR .'.I

rich greens of the velure upholstery. The low seat and
the peculiar curve of the spindles forming the back give the
chair a very quaint appearance. After making a careful
drawing about 10 inches high, begin with the green, as it
forms the largest masses. Put on the first washes as directed
in the rendering of the velure, noting carefully the variation
of hue from yellowish to bluish green. Use gamboge and
Prussian blue, and when necessary modify the green thus
produced with a touch of crimson. After wiping out the
soft lights, leave these parts and proceed with the wood-
work. Too much insistence cannot be laid on the fact that
the color continually changes; one end of a surface m ay
appear red while the other appears green, as is the case in the
brace under the right arm of the chair, the upper part being
at the proper angle to reflect the green from the scat. Note
the difference in color between the front spindle and the
edge of the seat directly above it; although their local
color is identical, their position in reference to the light
makes one quite red while the other is distinctly purplish
above and yellowish beneath, due to the reflection from the
floor. The proximity of the green cushion gives a reddish
hue to the edge of the seat under it, by simultaneous
contrast. The rockers recede both in color and in tone,
which helps the appearance of reality.

Match the purplish reds with crimson and new blue and
gray this by the addition of yellow where necessary. Begin
with a small brush and put a wash over all the spindles of
the back. Avoid the high lights, which it is safe to leave a
little too wide. The edges of these lights may be left quite
sharp and softened afterwards, where desired, by gently
scrubbing with the bristle brush, (let a wash over all the
woodwork and let this one wash suffice wherever possible.
Next paint the cast shadow on the floor, then pul a wash over
the background and the floor; all these grays may be matched
with the red, yellow, and blue. When the whole drawing has
been covered by the first painting, go back to the beginning
and put on the finishing washes. A good deal of the reddish
purple maybe added to the green for the shaded parts.

32 RENDERING IN WATER COLOR §4

21. The old mahogany table, Fig. 28, has been selected
for a study on account of its rich color and simple masses.
It shines and reflects like other polished objects. Observe
how the reflection of the gray wall has neutralized the red
local color of the top, which, however, grows stronger as
it approaches the light and the eye of the observer. The
blue reflections on the dark base are more intense than
those on the rocking chair, but they are not bright high
lights; the angle was such that only a hint of the sky color
was reflected and not its full light. This sort of bloom is
often noticeable on dark furniture. Dust is a factor in the
color appearance of objects. A coating of it upon a surface
will entirely overcome the local color and, if the surface is a
polished one, will reduce its reflecting power. Its effect may
be readily observed on furniture that has not been disturbed
for some time. Touch any of the horizontal surfaces with
the finger and note how the finger mark differs in color and
tone from the surrounding parts. Dust is always gray;
when examined under a magnifying glass, it is found to be
composed of minute particles of all colors. It is, therefore,
a very luminous gray that is readily affected by simul-
taneous contrast. On account of this pleasing color contrast
and the tendency toward harmony is this sprinkling of gray,
artists often allow the dust to accumulate on objects in
their studios.

This table was not dusty. It has a sufficient variety
of color, however; note the reflection of the yellow floor
in the vertical planes of the base and the pleasing contrast
that is made with the purplish gray of the horizontal sur-
faces. Draw this figure about 10 inches high. Proceed with
the painting by getting a wash over each surface with as
much of the final effect as possible. Leave all sharp lights.
The soft half lights may be wiped out. Paint the top first
and work down to the cast shadow; this, being painted before
the floor, is considerably softened when the floor color is
painted over it. For the top, use crimson grayed with new
blue and gamboge; add more crimson as the lower right-
hand corner is approached. If the proper grading is not

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§4 RENDERING IN WATER COLOR 33

obtained in one wash, allow it to dry; turn the drawing
bottom end up and begin with the red in the corner, gradu-
ally blending out into the gray with thinner color. For the
remainder of the woodwork, use burnt sienna, new blue,
and a little crimson. The deeper parts may be obtained with
crimson and Vandyke brown and the sharp accents with
Prussian blue and crimson. The background grays are
made with Vandyke brown and emerald green and the warm
floor with red, yellow, and blue.

22. The last subject on the drawing plate, the oak book-
case, Fig. 29, brings us to the study of interiors. So far we
have dealt with single objects related only to their back-
grounds; this study begins to hint of the interior by its
association of objects. We have the case itself, forming
only a part of the study, the vase, the suggestion of books
and the silk curtain, the wall with its two divisions and its
suggestion of a picture, and the polished floor. It remains,
however, primarily a study of a bookcase; the accessories
must be kept in their subordinate relations. Sketch this
figure carefully, making it about 10 inches high. Do not
draw with a pencil the grain of the quartered oak nor any
but the larger folds in the drapery; these can be more freely
put in with a brush.

In rendering this study, a wash of yellow ocher is first
carried over the light side of the case, and by the addition
of some Prussian blue, made slightly greenish toward the
bottom, which is partly in shadow. A stronger wash of
yellowish gray is then carried over all of the top part, the
strips at the sides and base, and the shelves. This gives
at once the division of light and dark. The drapery, being
a large and important mass of color, should be next washed
in with yellow ocher and Prussian blue, the tones being
slightly duller than the high lights toward the bottom, which
are scrubbed out with the bristle brush and warmed with
a touch of gamboge. The glaring white lights that stand
out where the books and vase are to go are covered next.
The dark touches above the books are first put in with

84 RENDERING IN WATER COLOR §4

strong red and blue, and before these are entirely dry
a brush wet with water only is quickly dragged over the
back of each book, carrying a little of the purplish color
with it; this gives a suggestion of modeling to the backs
of the books. The local colors are then applied, the books
being kept separated by a tiny line of white paper. The
two divisions of the wall are then covered — the upper
by rather a neutral gray, and the woodwork by a wash
of somewhat darker, reddish gray, which is also carried
over the floor. The suggestion of picture and frame is
then painted, which finishes the covering of the surface.

Now strengthen the darks in the case, separating the
planes more vigorously where necessary; add the washes
that make the suggestion of grain, and put in the detail
of the drapery. A little crimson should be added to the
yellow and blue for these details, the shadows being
slightly purplish in hue. If the light part of the oak is not
yellow enough, use gamboge to bring up the color. Note
that this light side of the case remains the large mass of
light, everything else being subordinate. The upper part of
the wall is painted over with a broken wash of emerald
green and crimson, into which a little gamboge is added in
spots while the first wash is wet; this is to suggest a wall
paper with a small figure in tapestry effect. The wain-
scoting is finished with washes of burnt sienna, crimson, and
new blue, the dark side to the right of the case having the
detail barely suggested.

DRAWING PLATE, TITLE: INTERIORS

23. The architect or the interior decorator, and the illus-
trator or painter of pictures regard the subject of interiors
from entirely different standpoints: the first two are inter-
ested in design and arrangement, while the last are con-
cerned only as to the pictorial effect; the one takes account
of the elements of floor, walls, and ceiling and in the render-
ing deals mostly with facts of color; the other picks out a
picturesque bit that composes well and deals with appear-
ances. The designer often studies one wall at a time in

§4 RENDERING IN WATER COLOR 35

elevation, expressing certain facts in a direct way as to the
color and the scheme of decoration that he wishes to employ;
he may take little heed of the light and shade effects, as
his problem lies in making a harmonious scheme in division
of surface and in color, in a sketch to be shown to his client
and from which the decorator may carry the work to prac-
tical completion. In Fig. 30 is shown a sketch of this char-
acter. Here, the simple color treatment requires scarcely
more technical skill, outside of the design, than the match-
ing and mixing of colors and the laying of washes. When
the problem involves light, shade, and perspective, it
becomes a more difficult matter, as then everything must be
modeled and one tone and one color will not suffice. First
to be considered is the modeling of the room itself; for an
effective rendering the light should come from one direction
and should illuminate one wall while the other remains in
shade. Shadows cast by projecting objects or furniture help
the realism of the effect. Dimensioned sketches of this
character are valuable to the artist in the same manner that
the elevations of furniture are of value, as stated in Art. 18.

The interiors of religious edifices, particularly those that
preserve to us the ornament and the color of historic
periods, are of great interest both to the designer and the
painter. An important part of the training of the architect
and the decorator is the careful study and rendering in color
of these interiors.

The interior of a Gothic church, shown in Fig. 31, pre-
sents a problem for both the artist and the decorator. The
modeling of the forms, the effects of light and shade in the
perspective, and the harmonizing of the colors, required
the artist's eye and hand, while the proportioning of the
parts, the arrangement of the lines, the construction of the
roof, etc. were details of purely architectural character. It
is therefore apparent that it is quite as necessary for the
artist to be familiar with the architectural details, to some
extent, as it is for the architect to understand the theory
of color harmony and contrasts. A well-colored picture
that is architecturally incorrect will be as defective and

36 RENDERING IN WATER COLOR §4

uninteresting- as a poorly colored but correctly drawn archi-
tectural study. The study of architecture, historic ornament,
etc. is therefore of great value to the artist and illustrator.

24. In order to render these drawings in a clever man-
ner, the designer must make himself thoroughly familiar
with the appearance of objects, with textures, and with the
folds of drapery; he must know color and color harmony.
All these things must be "in his head," for when he does not
use models to any extent, he must create; he must also be
rapid, for his time is limited. Figs. 32, 33, and 34 show
reproductions of renderings in perspective by students of
interior decoration.

A student's preparation for this branch of art craftsman-
ship includes, in addition to all the subjects studied, the
rendering of interiors from life, the making of color schemes
for, and the rendering of, interiors from black-and-white
or outline drawings and from photographs. All desirous of
taking up this line of work should make as many renderings
of interiors as possible and try original color schemes on
drawings made from photographs, etc. The painter and the
illustrator find their greatest delight in the picturesque; they
represent interiors either as consistent settings for figures
or for the very beauty or picturesqueness of the thing itself.
The illustrator must be familiar with the prevailing styles
and with the historic styles of the different periods, for his
work, like that of the designer, often demands original
construction or composition. It is therefore advisable for
the artist to make frequent studies of picturesque interiors
in order that he may have them by him as accessories
when he is comparing his picture or illustration. Details,
such as shown in Fig. 32, are interesting on account of the
Oriental coloring and the introduction of the rather elaborate
tabaret in the corner. Fig. 33 is homelier and less brilliant
than the former; here we have a dingy corner with a few
old rags and bottles introduced to give color variety. Each
of these is useful in its proper place and difficult to find in
actual existence just when wanted. The mantel, Fig. 34,

§4 RENDERING IN WATER COLOR 37

suggestive of old-fashioned days, is another form of detail
that studies should be made from whenever the opportunity
presents itself. In fact, it is safe to say that every moment
of leisure time should be devoted to the making of these
simple sketches as accessories in interiors.

The picture of anything associated with the dwellings
of human beings will, perhaps, never cease to be of general
interest; from the dwelling of the humble peasant, where
man sometimes shares his habitation with his dumb animals,
to the sumptuous palace of royalty, the painter goes for
his subjects. While paintings of the latter interest us by
their grandeur and on account of historic associations, those
of the humbler sort touch our hearts. We look to them for
that mysterious quality known as the picturesque. We find
this quality inseparably associated with age and decay.
Man tears from nature's stores the materials with which to
build him a dwelling; he erects it and surveys it with satis-
faction; it is new and fresh inside and out, a fit habitation
from his point of view. Nature, however, does not agree
with him; she would take back to herself the materials of
which man has robbed her and efface the scars he has made.
Her agents, the elements, are immediately set to work and
dilapidation begins; rain, wind, and frost attack the outside;
smoke, dust, and dampness the inside; man, for a time,
bravely resists these attacks and keeps up a running fight
of periodical repairs, triumphantly saying to himself, "There!
it is as good as new." But nature smiles at his pathetic
patching, which only makes her work the more evident,
and unceasingly, untiringly continues the work of destruction
until man, becoming less and less vigilant, gradually gives
up the fight and her victory is assured. It is the visible
evidence of this battle with nature, especially in all things
associated with man, that helps to make the quality called
the picturesque. When the victory has been complete and
man is driven from the field, we survey the ruins with deep
feelings of pity while we think of the former estate; but
not in ruins do we find the highest degree of the pic-
turesque; the ruined city of the ancients, the ruined and

38 RENDERING IN WATER COLOR §4

deserted home of the humblest of men, while full of pathos,
lacks the interest that we find in the habitation that shows
the ravages of time but is still occupied by man.

It remained for the peasant painter Millet to reveal to the
hitherto unappreciative world the picturesque charm of the
peasant's home and his life. The Dutch painters of today
and others continue to give us charming pictures of inte-
riors, especially those of the Dutch peasants and fisherfolk.
In the workshops, of men as well as in the homes we find the
same picturesque quality and interest; in the mighty steel
plant and the familiar blacksmith shop of the cross-roads,
the great modern factory and humble cobbler's shop, the
artist finds delightful subjects for study. The old black-
smith forge shown in Fig. 35 is an example of what may
be found in nearly every village. Our cities and towns are
full of workshops, little and big, that contain just such pic-
turesque bits as this.

25. Let us look at this drawing critically; it is a good
subject to illustrate the difference between a study and a
picture in its strictest sense. In the first place it is essen-
tially a study and not a picture. A picture should have but
one center of interest; this study has at least four: the anvil
and block, the barrel, the forge, and the window. No mat-
ter how cleverly each one of these might be treated, the result
cannot be a picture in the truest sense of the word. There
is material here, however, for the settings of several pic-
tures; we have but to give free play to our imagination to
see the blacksmith at work at his anvil, the light streaming
in from the door at the right, while that from the window is
more subdued; the forge with all its detail is subordinated
into a suggestive background; the interest is at once cen-
tered in the man and his work at the anvil, or the picture
may be one where the light from the door is shut off casting
into gloom the foreground, the anvil, the front plane of the
forge, and the barrel; the blacksmith bends over the glowing
forge, his figure partially illuminated by the cool light from
the window and partially by the warm glow of the fire, which

§4 RENDERING IN WATER COLOR 39

is so bright that its light predominates over that from the
window and becomes the chief light of the picture as well as
lending the dominant color note in its orange glow. Those
who have observed the effect of this combination of colored
lights, firelight and daylight, lamplight and moonlight, know
the peculiar charm of color that it lends to objects, irrespec-
tive of their local color. It is a favorite subject of study with
artists and is seen in many pictures.

26. The rendering of this subject is pretty well explained
by the two stages of painting shown in Figs. 35 and 36.
Although many objects are to be represented, the drawing
will not be found difficult, for there is hardly a straight line
or a perfectly clear-cut edge anywhere. Both the drawing
and the painting should be as loose and free as possible;
this is necessary in order to secure the appearance of age
and wear and accumulated dust. The old window had prob-
ably not been touched for over 40 years, the sill was covered
thick with yellow dust that had accumulated in piles at the
corners, the spiders had done their best to destroy the
straight lines of the sash, and the glass was covered with a
translucent film of opalescent color. Here was nature work-
ing for harmony. The old stone forge had been plastered
and whitewashed at some remote period of its history, but
much of this had worn away and the mortar had departed
from between the stones, leaving soft, rounded edges. Dust
had settled on every tiny projecting plane of the rough
surface, and to this much of the color was due. The soft gray
green contrasts nicely with the purplish grays that prevail
throughout the remainder of the study. Sketch this figure
about twice this size and begin the painting with the
wash on the dark wall, which should be started at the top
(using crimson, Prussian blue, and Vandyke brown) and
carry it down on both sides around the chimney and the
window. On the chimney side the wash is darker below, but
on the right of, and below the window, it is lightened and
the color made warmer by using burnt sienna instead of
Vandyke brown; some emerald green should also be worked

40 RENDERING IN WATER COLOR §4

into this wash in the lower part. These colors must not be
all mixed together, as muddiness will result; touch them
together loosely in the paint box, or better still, flood one
into another on the paper. The forge on the one side and
the barrel on the other form stopping places for this wash;
it can be blended out with clear water where a hard edge is
not desirable. In this case the colors of the forge are laid
in as a continuation of the upper wash except where a defi-
nite edge is to be left. The same colors as above, in lighter
tones and continually varying, are used throughout the lower
part. The large washes are carried around the anvil and
block, which are painted afterwards. For the chimney and
the hood, use emerald green with crimson and burnt sienna.

Always try to secure the proper relations of the masses in
the first painting; in other words, make the tones hold
together as much as possible as you proceed. It would be
a mistake to allow the floor or the chimney to become darker
than the wall. It is always safer to leave the lightest parts
to be painted last; in this case, the window and the lights on
the anvil and the chimney have been left white. Light forms
that have been accidentally covered may be brought out by
"scrubbing."

After the painting has been carried thus far, there remains
only the truing up of the relations, the softening of edges,
the breaking up of washes that are too clean (such as the
floor, which ought not to appear swept or polished in this
case), and the addition of detail. If the drawing is first
worked into the condition shown in Fig. 36, one should
experience no difficulty in reaching a satisfactory second
stage, as a careful comparison of the two will make evident
just what steps are to be taken. If desired, the plate may
be sent in for preliminary criticism after it is carried to the
stage shown in Fig. 36, and then finished when returned.

RENDERING IN WATER COLOR 41

DRAWING PLATE, TITLE: LANDSCAPE

27. The study of landscape from nature is not only one
of the most delightful and helpful branches of art education
but it is the most healthful, inasmuch as it keeps the student
outdoors and is likely to give him considerable exercise. It
is a strange fact that landscape painting was not considered
of much importance until the present age. Thomas Gains-
boro, the English painter, was about the first artist to give it
any considerable attention, for up to his time landscape
was simply used as accessory to figures and portraits.
He painted landscapes for their own sake and made figures
and other details subordinate.

The observance of color out of doors is much the same as
within doors, but one has to take into account the subtle col-
oring influences of the atmosphere and colored sunlight, and
to be particularly careful to paint objects as he sees them
instead of endeavoring to render them as he knows them to
be. The effect of the atmosphere in landscape effect is to
change the color according to the amount of moisture that
the atmosphere contains; in a very dry community color influ-
ences are very slightly affected, as is well known in connec-
tion with certain landscapes in the Rocky Mountains. Even
in the eastern part of the country, on a fine day, a tree one-
half mile away may appear very distinctly modeled and quite
green in color, but a day or two following its tone will have
changed to a bluish gray without any sign of modeling or
detail, except on the edges, where the leaves blend into the
sky in a spongy mass.

Observe, in Fig. 37, how sharp and distinct the trees in the
distance are profiled against the sky. The foliage of many
of them is quite as distinct as the large elm in the fore-
ground, but in Fig. 38 quite a different condition exists.
A haze rising from the ground obscures not only the delicate
lights and shadows of the trees but also all of the detail
except their general outlines, and they appear simply as
spongy masses, while the tree in the foreground is but
slightly affected. It requires close attention to observe

42 RENDERING IN WATER COLOR §4

and reproduce the actual appearance of objects, instead of
endeavoring to represent them as they are known to be.

28. In drawing Fig. 38 from nature the tendency would
be to render the distant trees with nearly as much detail
as the one in the foreground, for knowing that they are
similar in structure one deceives himself into believing they
appear quite as clearly as those in Fig. 37. Smoke and dust
also obscure the outlines of objects in landscape and often
affect their color, but these are not so lasting as the effects
of fog, and therefore need not be taken into account, as a
general thing.

The most delightful times of day to represent landscape
work, both on account of the soft outlines and the delicate
colors, are morning and evening, when the atmosphere is
most affected by moisture and the sunlight is most eccentric
in color.

It is evident that in order to gain a mastery of nature one
must be content at the beginning with a study of her less
subtle and less transitory effects. After the observation has
become trained and keen from much practice, the study will
contain more difficult and more delightful phases. This plate
shows the more familiar aspect of objects as they .appear in
full daylight. The range of colors given are ample for this
"line of study, but for the portrayal of a sunrise or sunset
other colors will be necessary to produce special effects.

One must learn well to study from nature before attempt-
ing landscape work. Studying indoors gives good practice
to the eye and to the hand, but objects that will stand still
indefinitely and remain unchanged as long as the light is
unchanged can be drawn out leisurely and no particular
haste need be attempted in order to portray them, but out-
doors matters are quite different. The light is trying to the
eyes and constantly changing, and therefore likely to deceive
the artist. Then the question of subject comes up — how
much of what we see shall we paint. This is one of the
most perplexing questions to the beginner, for composition
is of the utmost importance in outdoor study. One object

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§4 RENDERING IN WATER COLOR 43

will form a picture; a number of objects may form the sub-
jects of a study. When attempting to form a picture, the
principal object must be well balanced on the canvas and
surrounded by minor details that in no way detract from
its importance.

29. Sketching; is the term applied to a sort of short-
hand rendering of effects or objects as we see them; it
is a brief record of a pleasing combination of color masses.
The beginner does not make sketches, for, the ability to
make them implies a knowledge of details that can be
acquired only by long study and observation. A study dif-
fers from a sketch inasmuch as it requires more time and
goes farther toward completion; it tells more literally the
story of what is before the eye. It is a record set down
with painstaking care, whereas the sketch is readily placed
on the paper and its use in a future composition is depend-
ent on the artist's further training and actual knowledge of
conditions that are unnecessary to record. The study lacks
the dash and spirit of the rapid sketch as well as the clever
and painstaking finish of the picture, and is a medium
through which one must arrive at the other two.

The landscape painter makes many studies and sketches
from nature, but very rarely finishes a single picture out-
doors. The picture is usually made, from the studies, in
the studio at home, perhaps after the study season is over.
There the artist may take his time under the best con-
ditions of light, and supply what his sketches lack in
detail and effect from a stock of stored-up observations in
sketches or studies or from his memory.

The drawing plates used in this Course are necessarily
studies. None of them is sufficiently crude to be considered
a sketch, nor sufficiently finished in composition to be called
a picture. They are accessories that may be combined to
form a picture, but are not pictures in themselves.

30. In Fig. 39 are shown three sketches, the originals
of which were hurriedly made one morning on pieces of
paper 3i inches by 6 inches. They record the impression of

44 RENDERING IN WATER COLOR §4

sunlight in the middle of the forenoon. No attempt is made
to detail the foliage or the buildings, but simply to show the
effects of colors in this brilliant sunshine. The masses are
expressed in broad, flat washes, a single wash being suf-
ficient for each one in many cases. The color and the rela-
tive tones of the masses, as well as the characteristic forms
of the different trees, are the only details that have received
attention.

{a) is a memorandum of a country road over a bridge,
with sycamore and willow trees casting a shadow over the
road at the bridge. Beyond this on the left are some
soft, gray willows. The high light is on the masonry
of the bridge railing. The sycamore tree in the foreground
has a decidedly yellowish-green hue while the ground is
lighter than the tree. The small willow in front of the
sycamore is a purplish gray and the roadway a light tint of
orange. The shadow on the road is a purplish gray, the
distant trees are a bluish purple, and the distant road and
grass much paler than in the foreground. The sky is a pale
blue with soft, yellowish clouds. Thus, the sketch records
more realistically and satisfactorily the actual conditions
of light and shade and color that exist in this little piece
of country roadside than we could express in. words or
descriptions. The other two sketches, (b) and (c), are simply
repetitions of this one and can be much more readily made
than any other form of notes. Thus, we see that the sketch
is a simple memorandum of existing conditions.

Fig. 40 is a study, made in the early spring time, showing
an arched stone bridge and a little stream in the foreground.
The color and light are here subdued, while the greenness
of the grass and the scarcity of foliage are strongly sug-
gestive of the season.

Fig. 41 is a study of a road going up a hill past an old-
fashioned plaster house; it was evidently painted in the early
morning. The problem in this case, was to make the road
appear as though it came toward the observer as it
descended, instead of extending as a perfectly flat plane in
front of him. This has been accomplished by increasing

§4 RENDERING IN WATER COLOR 45

the amount of color and effective detail in the foreground
and by so drawing the lines as to get the effect of a rece-
ding plane. The blue gray of the distant trees is nearly the
same in tone as the shadows on the road; this color forms
a pleasing contrast with the warmer tints of the sky,
the house, and the road. There are no crude greens in
either Fig. 40 or Fig. 41, and the whole is worked up much
more in detail than any of the sketches in Fig. 39.

31. Most open landscapes can be divided into four
elements — sky, distance, middle distance, and foreground.
The composition of the picture depends on the placing of
these masses so that they balance well; to overlook this
important detail spoils the picture, no matter how well the
different parts have been executed individually. A good
way to judge the appearance of a picture is to carry about
several cards about the size of a postal card, in which small
rectangular openings of different proportions have been cut.
One of these cards held in front of the eye will screen all of
the landscape except that which may be observed through
the opening, and thus the amount to be included in the
picture and the proper balancing of its values and tones can
be better determined than where the whole landscape is
spread out at one time. Differently proportioned rectangles
should be tried on the same landscape and adjusted both
horizontally and vertically, to observe not only which is the
more pleasing but also the relation of the lines and masses
of the picture to the lines of the frame.

Nearly every landscape contains a horizontal line where
the sky and distance or where the distance and ground
meet. If this line is decided, like the horizon line of the
ocean, it should be placed well above or below the center
of the picture, for if the picture contains two equal masses
of sky and foreground, the interest is evenly divided between
the two and the picture loses in effect. When apparent,
this line should be the first thing placed in the picture, as
one can judge from its position about how the finished
composition will look. If it is desired that the picture

46 RENDERING IN WATER COLOR §4

shall have the appearance of a hill, like Fig. 41, the horizon
should be placed well toward the top of the picture, thus
admitting- very little sky. If the sky is an important thing,
the line should be placed low. The important upright
mass should not occupy the center of the picture or a
position not too near the edge, and the lights and shades
should be balanced so that neither one nor the other appears
to occupy all of the important position on either side of the
center of the picture.

32. The chief concern of the student is with the color
appearances and the effects in nature. He must learn to
reduce what he sees to its lowest possible terms before
putting it in color. He must eliminate all thought of detail
and try to see the elements in simple, flat masses of color,
thinking of them rather in the terms of his water colors
than as they are; that is to say, a distant lot, tree, or
house should appear simply as an irregular mass of color
and not as what it really is. A clear sky is simply a wash
of pale blue graded into pearl gray as it approaches the
horizon. A distant bank of woods is a wash of bluish
purple that is much darker than the sky. The ground is
simply a graded wash of a given color, light in the distance
but deepening as it comes forwards, the purity of the color
increasing as the foreground is approached. The trees or
other objects that form the middle distance are washes
of more positive color, while the foreground is usually
a mass of rather dark, prominent color, more detailed in the
end than some of the distant elements, but, nevertheless,
a mass when considered in the picture.

In Fig. 42 are shown four studies treated in this simple
manner. At (a) is represented a little stone arched bridge
overrun with vines. The foreground is in shadow, with
gray-green banks of grass and leaves. The sunlight strikes
one edge of the bridge, which is thrown into relief by a mass
of purplish-gray trees beyond. Care has been taken to match
the values and to strike the color as nearly as one flat wash
will allow. Both in this sketch and in that shown at (/>) the

§4 RENDERING IN WATER COLOR 47

treatment is simple and almost poster-like in effect, and could
be printed very readily from single blocks without gradations.
The sketch (6) is of a freshly painted house. Its sunlit end
is strongly contrasted with the dull-red roof and the dark-
green maple tree beyond, although both of the latter are in
sunlight also. These values can best be judged by closing
the eyes almost entirely and peering steadily between the
lids toward the object it is intended to portray. In this way
much detail is lost, masses of light and shade bring them-
selves into greater prominence, and the true values of color
become more apparent. After studying the object in this
manner, mix a wash as closely as possible to the color that is
to be laid flatly on and compare it with the color of the
building, again partly closing the eyes. The original
sketches, (a) and (/>), Fig. 42, were 4i inches by 6 inches,
and not over an hour was spent by the students in the study
and execution of each.

The subjects (c) and (d), Fig. 42, are more elaborate, intro-
ducing tree forms at varying distances and of different hues.
There is more detail and more evidence of skill in the han-
dling of the washes in these two studies, which begin to show
the grading from one color into another without hard edges,
as was the case at (b) . In (c ) a cloudy sky has been suggested
by simply using two tones. The foreground of (d) , where
the reddish and purplish gray blend softly with the warmer
tints, still preserves a fairly definite form; these represent
foundation washes on which the rest of the work is built up.

33. In making a water-color sketch from nature, learn
first to treat the general landscape as all other subjects; the
suggestive wash is first carried over each figure of the
sketch, giving to it the proper tone and color as nearly as our
skill in observation will allow; the second painting then
follows. Work up and elaborate various details and improve
the tone relations until the whole is suggestive of what the
intended work must be when finished. In doing this, as in
all other cases of drawing, it is better to work up too little
than too much.

48 RENDERING IN WATER COLOR §4

In all landscape work, the sky should be considered as the
under surface of a dome that changes in hue from the zenith
to the horizon. In a cloudless sky this gradation is from a
transparent blue above to a pearl gray at the horizon, which
varies materially with the amount of moisture in the atmos-
phere; this gradation should be carefully observed, otherwise
the sky is likely to appear like a vertical screen or plane
hanging behind the rest of the picture. When the sky is
cloudy, this arched effect is made much more evident by the
gradual foreshortening of the clouds as they approach the
horizon. The large, white, fleece-like clouds that float
across the zenith of a blue sky are not so bright when low
or near the horizon; in some places they are yellowish in
lights, while in others they are varied by hues of gray, in the
shadow portions, that often softly melts into the blue of the
clear sky. When high in the sky they may be represented
with white high lights and more sharply defined edges.
Clouds are of much interest because of their great variety of
forms, their color, grandeur of masses, and wondrous struc-
ture and texture.

34. Fig. 43 shows two cloud studies in which the land-
scape is barely suggested in the foreground, and is intro-
duced merely to show the relation of the sky and the horizon.
At (a) the sky is comparatively clear in an afternoon light;
the color of the sky and clouds grades off as it approaches
the horizon, the blue becomes greenish and then gray,
and the clouds take on the softening gray of the atmosphere.
A sky like this may be painted by applying the graded wash
with a large brush as quickly as possible; no account is taken
of the cloud forms. The brush is then rinsed and dried by
a rapid shaking, and the high lights, or white portions of the
clouds, are wiped out while the paper is wet. This occupies
but a few moments and makes it possible to catch passing
cloud forms, no matter how changeable they may appear to
be. The local color and the modeling of the clouds may be
painted in at leisure. Should it be desired to sharpen the
upper edges of the clouds, another light wash of blue may

§4 RENDERING IN WATER COLOR 49

be applied to the upper sky, but care should be taken not to
make the outlines too hard.

The painting- of skies, like everything else, must be done
with a view to expressing- their general character rather than
the detail. Cloud forms are too transient to allow of exact
representation, and it is perfectly proper in any composition
to alter the form and position of any clouds, if by so doing the
composition is improved. Clouds should appear to float in
the air. When they prepare to fall they melt away slightly at
the lower edges, as shown in Fig. 43 (/>) . This is a character-
istic rainy-day sky and is very skilfully managed. The gradual
losing- of one form into another as it approaches the horizon
and the beautiful variations of delicate gray are suggestive of
an approaching- storm. These grays are produced with red,
yellow, and blue, and are applied after the surface of the paper
has been moistened with a sponge so that no hard lines will
exist. The distance is the part of the landscape most strongly
affected by the color of the atmosphere, and much of the pleas-
ing effect of the picture is dependent on the skilful handling
of this detail; therefore, it should be carefully studied.

35. Different planes of distance must often be expressed.
These are usually kept distinct by their varying hues and
degrees of contrast as expressed in their forms; remote
distance is best expressed in flat washes of bluish gray. The
beginner is apt to misjudge values and make strong con-
trasts of tone in the distance; he is also likely to misjudge
the color, and forgets to compare it with the nearer parts of
the same scene. The skdled artist, however, cannot afford
to represent all that he can see in any feature of the land-
scape. He has early learned to sacrifice for the sake of
simplicity, and recognizes the charm that the suggestive,
semidistinct outline possesses and endeavors, by its use, to
infuse a quality of mystery into his painting. At first make
the distance very flat and decidedly blue; the greatest error
that can be committed in this direction will be to make it
to appear too distant, but you can afterwards build it up and
bring it forwards until the right tone is obtained.

50 RENDERING IN WATER COLOR §4

Objects occupying the middle distance, such as trees,
buildings, etc., must be studied by themselves as well as
according to their relations to the whole subject. Tree
forms and foliage demand much study, and although they
are difficult to master they can be satisfactorily portrayed
after practice and persistent effort. In studying trees or
groups of trees one should stand at least three times the
height of the tree away from it, and then consider it from
the same points that he would consider any other object of
which he is to make a drawing or water-color sketch. Its
form, texture, and color must be noted, for in these lie its
whole character. These characteristics change, of course,
with the seasons; at least they do in some latitudes, and it is
largely by representing this changed condition that one
gives expression to the different seasons in his picture.

It should be borne in mind that trees are not always
green, and also that trees never appear all green. The
observance of any ordinary tree in bright sunlight will show
that many of the shining leaves reflect the blue from the
sky and appear almost white; others, penetrated by sunlight,
are vividly yellow, or light green; while still others, cast
into the deep shade, appear almost neutral gray.

Color harmony teaches us that when blue and yellow are
mingled in small particles, gray is produced, and not green.
Because of this fact it is impossible to produce a good effect
by painting trees in several tones of green; modified colors
must be used, both for the light and the shade. In trees, as
in all objects, one may expect to find the shadows contrasted
with the lights in color; therefore, when the light in the
tree is a yellowish green, the greens in the shadow portions
must necessarily have a violet tinge. The trunks of trees
are usually of various tones of purplish gray, often deep in
color when they are in deep shade, but under no circum-
stances are they black.

36. Buildings and other architectural details, when intro-
duced into landscape as subordinate features, do not require
especial attention. They are usually rendered in flat washes,

TILDEN FOUNDATIONS

§4 RENDERING IN WATER COLOR 51

and there is no great difficulty in determining their color.
Old and dilapidated buildings require some special attention
in order to get the proper hues where the brick has become
stained by age or where moss has accumulated on the
stonework and shingles. Moss due to constant dampness
and decay varies in appearance from that due to a dry or
more barren decay, and attention should be given to the
matching of these hues.

The effect of distance or perspective of the ground is
usually expressed by changing the color and diminishing its
intensity as it recedes. The atmospheric conditions affect
the horizontal as well as the vertical features of the picture
and therefore must be taken into account, even when great
distance is not shown. A meadow may stretch between us
and some distant tree — a matter of several hundred feet.
Certainly the foreground cannot be expressed by a flat wash
of green, as it grows less and less green with every foot
that it recedes into the distance.

Sunlighted grass is yellow with very little green in it, and
in foregrounds may be safely represented by gamboge con-
taining a little emerald green. The shadows are cooler and
more green, and are best produced by adding blue to green.
In late summer the bloom on grass and weeds materially
affects the color of the ground. Its reddish-purple masses
are broken through the green of the foreground but gener-
ally cover the green entirely in the distance, where the eye
naturally looks over a considerable mass of bloom and
feels that the green of the grass is entirely hidden. The
coarser texture of the foreground, due to the effect of
nearness, can best be expressed by broken washes and the
addition of bright bits of color in the path, stones, or
exposed earth, but the foreground should be kept simple.
Near-by weeds or bushes should be expressed in masses
and not in detail.

A path, road, or stream of water coming into the fore-
ground lends interest both by the lines and the variety of
color that is thus added. Clear, still water reflects objects
with colors almost unchanged, but when the water is seen at

52 RENDERING IN WATER COLOR §4

an angle and the clear sky is reflected into it, the nearer
surface is darker in tone than the more distant; this is due
to the deepening of the color of the sky toward the zenith.

DRAWING PLATE, TITLE] : AN OLD LIME KILN

37. Fig. 44 represents an old kiln in bright sunlight.
The study was made on a bright day late in September
when the sky was intensely blue and the foliage had begun
to take on its autumn tints. Note how the main lines
converge in the direction of the turn in the road as it
disappears over the little hill. These lines form important
elements of the composition, and near this point of conver-
gence is found the strongest contrast of tone. Features of this
character always give interest to the picture and should be
studied as carefully as the objects that are represented.
Mix the colors and lay on the washes as shown in Fig. 45,
making them much brighter than the intended work will
be when finished, as a bright color can be toned down much
more easily than a dull color can be toned up. The first
painting should tell most of the story and be perfectly
intelligible as it stands.

The sky when washed in should be carried over the space
to be occupied by the foliage; new blue and emerald green
should be used for this purpose, the green being added
as the horizon is approached. Where the lighter parts
of the foliage occur, some of the blue should be taken up
with the wet brush. The foliage should be painted with
gamboge, Prussian blue, and crimson. A careful study of
the first painting will show to what extent the modeling and
variety of color can be produced here. Crude green should
always be avoided. The darker part of the surface of the
kiln should next be painted with a gray made of red, yellow,
and blue. The wash is started at the extreme left above the
shed and carried to the broken place in the wall, changing
in hue slightly all the time. It should then be washed
to the edge of the arched opening, the tones of which
are immediately put in, a tiny line of dry paper serving to

(a)

Fig. 13

#7*Jt

THE HEW Y0RK
PUBLIC UBRAM

XSTOK, tW«ijSi

§4 RENDERING IN WATER COLOR 53

keep the darker color in its place. The same gray is used
for the shadow on the wall and on the ground under the shed.

Next the barn should be painted with three tones: the
roof lighter than the sky, the end made warm by reflection
from the yellow road, and the side darker and cooler. The
darker section of the right wall of the kiln should be painted
first, and then the lighter portion to the left of it. The color
of the latter should be carried, with slight variations, over
the ground immediately below it and blended out with clear
water, so as to leave no trace. All these masses should be
considered as units, notwithstanding the fact that a great
variety of hues have been employed. They must not be cut
up into spots by changing the tone too much.

The plane of the ground should be begun with green on
the sides of the roadway near the barn, and the purple
shadow on the road washed into the wet green, while the
road itself is painted one broad wash of yellow ocher with
bits of red and green touched into it. The tints on the shed
roof and posts and the bit of sunlighted wall under the shed
may now be washed in, and the first painting may be con-
sidered as complete.

The working up of the second painting requires little
explanation, as it is simply an expression of detail. The
sky should not be touched again, but the edges of the foliage
should be softened in places and the masses broken some-
what by a second wash to tone clown the color. The details
of the stonework should now be added, and the sharp edges
softened. The wall under the shed should be darkened, and
the four arched openings finished; each portion should thus
be dealt with successively. The stiff bristle brush may be
used to scrub out the high lights and soften the edges in
places. Observe that though the foreground is somewhat
broken up by the pile of rocks and the details in the road,
no strong darks have been employed such as is seen in the
shadow under the shed. Should too strong a contrast be
introduced here, the eye will be held by this unimportant
pile of rocks instead of being led to the more important
features.

54 RENDERING IN WATER COLOR §4

In rendering this plate, endeavor to produce the general
effect rather than slavishly copy each wash. In fact, it will
be found much more difficult to copy these washes, tint after
tint and tone after tone, than to observe the general effect of
the whole and work it up according to one's own idea. Give
particular attention to the region around the end of the shed,
as it is to this spot that the eye is led by the converging
lines and the interest of the picture centers.

THE NEW YORK
PUBLIC LIBRARY

ASTDR, LF.NOXAND
TILDF.N FOUNDATIONS

' ■ "

THE NEW YORK
PUBLIC LIBRARY

ASTOR, LENOX AND
TILDEN FOUNDATIONS

DRAWING FROM NATURE

INTRODUCTION

1. "Nature is the only infallible teacher in art."

"Drawing from nature is only the recording of some-
thing from her great textbook, that cannot be expressed
in words."

"The eye and the hand must be trained together in order
to make these records with any degree of truth."

These three simple facts, kept ever in mind, form
the best starting point for the student. The instruction
here given will be made as plain and direct as possible,
dealing only with the simplest medium for outdoor study —
the pencil.

The student should embrace every opportunity for outdoor
work, if only for a short time each day. The long, summer
days are invaluable, while spring and autumn offer special
features for helpful work in certain details; the tree trunks
and branches, and the network of twigs, and the stems in
shrubs are then laid bare for a closer inspection than is
possible when in full leafage. These details form most
interesting and profitable study and repay the student for
the time spent. Even bleak, hoary winter has days when at
least a half hour can be put in to advantage. And so, the
whole year round, nature furnishes abundant material for
the industrious and watchful student.

For notice of copyright, see page immediately following t/ie title page
§5

2 DRAWING FROM NATURE §5

During these studies the student is working with conscious
effort to improve himself, and filling the pages of his sketch
book with memoranda that will be serviceable in all of his
future work. It is in this way that the illustrator is ready to
respond in fitting manner to ideas and sentiments expressed
in writing; his notebook is a storehouse to which he can
turn in every emergency.

Nature has unlimited space in which to express herself,
while the artist is limited to a few square inches of canvas
or paper. The student must therefore be modest in the
selection of subjects, and never attempt something beyond
his abilities. He should try to record only what comes
within a reasonable estimate of his capacity. The beginner
is usually too ambitious, and is seldom content to begin with
small things, developing the fact that one little thing done
well will carry him farther on his way, than half a dozen
great efforts poorly carried out. One should attempt but
one thing at a time, and not hesitate to begin again if not
satisfied that he has made a good start. Repetition will
teach one where his greatest tendency to error lies, and will
cultivate patience for future use, besides. The student that
follows these instructions with conscientious effort should
soon reach a point where he can make rapid progress, and
feel himself increase in power from day to day.

Drawing from nature is an inexhaustible study. None
but the observant, well-trained student can appreciate the
fascination of hours spent out of doors in this delightful
pursuit. Let him always remember, that to draw well is to
possess the key to all art. Even though his strong desire
and hope is to be a successful colorist, he will find himself
cramped in expression if he lack this essential. Let him lay
this first foundation well, and the confidence born within him
will lead on to endless possibilities in art.

The purpose of a teacher is to enable one to do without a
teacher.

§5

DRAWING FROM NATURE

MATERIALS FOR WORK

2. Pencils. — The pencil has one great advantage over
other instruments used for art work — it is always conve-
nient and needs no cumbersome appurtenances to make it
serviceable.

With a pencil and a small paper pad, or in emergency
even the back of an envelope, one is equipped for sketching
small memoranda serviceable for future reference in work of
importance. In this way the sketcher has an advantage
over the photographer with his ponderous camera and tripod,
and the art student soon learns to appreciate this light and
serviceable equipment.

While pencils may be obtained capable of producing several
degrees of tint, from the most delicate to an intense, metallic
black, only a few are necessary to cover the ground of artistic
work. Three or four are quite suffi-
cient for sketching, and as one becomes
accustomed to their use, he finds that
even with one he can make satisfactory
general memoranda. But ability to do
this is reached only when the hand has
learned its cunning, and the pencil is
handled with skill. Dexterity can be
acquired only by practice.

Speaking in a general sense, pencils
can be divided into two classes — soft
and hard. The finer qualities run from
B (soft) to BBBBBB (very soft), and
from H to HHHHHH, denoting the
opposite quality and degrees of hard-
ness. Intermediate between these is
HB, signifying hard and black, a most useful pencil for
general use in simple memoranda.

The student will find two grades ample for his needs.
These are HB capable of being sharpened to a fine point,
as shown at (b) , Fig. 1; and BB suitable for any gradation
desired. The latter should be sharpened with care, leaving

Fig. l

DRAWING FROM NATURE

§5

Fig. 2

little lead to protrude, as the points are easily broken. The
softer of these, the BB, may with advantage be sharpened
with a chisel-shaped edge, as shown at {a), Fig. 1. A flat,

even tint, indicative of clapboard,
stone, or brickwork, Fig. 2, or long,
rush-like leaves and grasses, Fig. 3,
may be represented with the pencil
sharpened in this manner. While
there must be no shirking of careful
work, yet, a short cut to secure a
simple end like this need not be con-
sidered as encouraging a slovenly
method of working, as it saves
time for more important things.

Always start out with pencils
ready for instant use. It is well

to have duplicates in case of accident. While waiting to

resharpen a pencil, some effect of light and shade worth

committing to paper may vanish. To be in touch with

nature, one must ever be on

the lookout and ready for

business. A small piece of

sandpaper, or a little pad of

sandpaper sheets, is very con-
venient for quickly pointing a

pencil, although one cannot

dispense with a pocket knife

to remove the wood from

the lead.

3. Drawing' Paper. — The

subject of paper is largely a
matter of choice, but What-
man's "cold pressed" or Strath-
more drawing board is excellent for general work. Some
papers of similar quality are less expensive and just as good
for practice work. The individual likings of artists vary, and
after a little experience the student can select what suits his

§5 DRAWING FROM NATURE 5

hand best. Above all, choose a dull surface. Most artists
prefer a tooth to the paper, as it is technically designated.
The slight unevenness of surface gives a peculiar effect for
some kinds of work, breaking the monotony of touch, and
giving a subtle rendering, at times very pleasing. But for
the beginner, a moderately smooth paper will be found most
satisfactory. When experience has resulted in skill, the
student can profit by using different kinds of paper.

4. Erasers. — It is well to use two grades of erasers —
a hard, velvet rubber, and a soft, pliable, or spongy, rubber;
though as a general rule, an eraser should be used as seldom
as possible. It roughens and frays the paper, however soft
and fine the eraser may be, and injures the freshness of the
original lines. Beginners in their overanxiety to receive
credit for nicety, are apt to ply the rubber indiscriminately,
scrubbing out all the life and character of what might other-
wise deserve commendation if left to show for itself. Neat-
ness is commendable in all work, and a smutted drawing is
a difficult thing from which to hunt out the small virtue it
may contain, but a spotty, scrubbed-up drawing is worse.
Always bear in mind that the eraser is for emergencies, and
refrain from its use as a regular drawing instrument.

The difference in the erasure of lines made with hard and
soft pencils is that lines drawn with a hard pencil can be
removed with a soft eraser if the paper is not indented by
pressure, while lines drawn with a soft pencil invariably
leave a trace of the lead. A hard pencil is intended for
delicate, light work. It should never be used with sufficient
pressure to cause it to produce a heavy line, as it is sure to
indent the paper. Soft pencils should be used for dark lines
and for shadows, as they require little pressure in order to
produce this effect.

DRAWING FROM NATURE §5

TRAINING THE EYE AND THE HAND

5. In writing, we occasionally see the pen held at an
unusual angle, so there may be special exceptions to the
holding of the drawing pencil. Against this there is no
protest if the result be the same. Individuality and inde-
pendence often give character to a drawing.

Having commenced to discipline the hand, the eye must
be taught at the same time to do its share of the work.
Certain shapes, in our minds, mean certain objects in the
outside world. Because we know a tree is a tree, we try
to draw it as we think it should look to be a tree. This
idea is all wrong, and it becomes necessary to recover what

has been wisely called
"the innocence of the
eye." Throw aside all
preconceived ideas and
learn to look with the
unthinking ignorance
of the child seeing
something for the first
time. Free yourself
from all guesswork and
supposition. Look,
and put down clearly
and distinctly just what
you really see; namely, light and shade. If these are cor-
rectly rendered, the shapes of objects will take care of them-
selves. Observe closely nature's methods of producing her
pictures — no sharp outlines exist, no hard formality. Note
the ease and grace that characterize her forms — everything
is bounded by curves. It has been truly said that nature
abhors a straight line. All lines are broken by bunches of
leaves, tufts of grass, or some other softening detail.
Angular and crooked growths in branches and stems form
picturesque bits that always make pleasing subjects for
reproduction. Nature loves contrast and abhors monotony,
and precision and regularity in outline are unnatural.

§5 DRAWING FROM NATURE 7

Observe the beautiful tangle of weeds, sticks, and stones in
some out-of-the-way place, and give the eye free range to
learn from such homely details as this, and to unlearn old
traditions, by carefully representing only what it sees. This
does not mean a microscopic record of every stick and straw;
that is impossible. Simply suggest the individual objects
and represent the mass as a whole, as in Fig. 4; the eye sees
it thus only, not in detachments. With such training the
eye and hand labor together and grow more helpful to each
other as the work proceeds.

6. Training the Hand. — As the eye and hand must
always work together, both should be put in training in

Fig. 5

order to cooperate successfully. The untrained eye is eager
and alert, but it does not see intelligently. The hand that
in other work may be deft and clever is usually clumsy when
it first takes up drawing, and must also be trained to execute
readily what the eye will soon be quick to discern. It is
therefore necessary that some simple exercise be practiced
in order to accustom the eye and hand to cooperate. It is
very important that the student should pay the closest atten-
tion to the following simple exercises with the pencil in
order that he may proceed intelligently with the more diffi-
cult and more interesting work that is to come. It is not

8 DRAWING FROM NATURE §5

simply necessary that the student should be able to make
representations of the following few figures, but he must
practice the work until at all times he is able to control his
hand or arm in the sweep of the pencil and cause it to travel
just as his mind dictates.

In order to produce different effects it is sometimes neces-
sary to hold the pencil in different positions, but for general
sketching it should be held lightly, but firmly, between the
thumb and first two fingers, about li or 2 inches from the
point, as shown in Fig. 5, much as in ordinary writing with
the hand resting lightly on the little finger.

PRELIMINARY EXERCISES

7. These preliminary exercises should be executed by the
student with a drawing board to hold his paper, but in out-
door work and actual sketching from nature a drawing pad

Fig. 6

or portfolio is usually more convenient. For present use,
pin the drawing paper to the board and lay the latter
squarely on the lap. It is not necessary to divide the paper

§5

DRAWING FROM NATURE

into any proportions for each particular exercise, as the
student will be required simply to practice this work for the
training of his hand and is not expected to send all of it
in for criticism, unless he finds it difficult in some points
and would like further suggestions.

The simple zigzag line shown in Fig. 6 should now be
practiced repeatedly until the student can increase and
decrease the sweeps of
the pencil with a degree
of uniformity that will
cause the outline from a
to b to c to assume an
even graded curve. Ex-
ercises similar to those
shown in Fig. 7 should
not be considered satis-
factory, as they are crude
and uneven, but repeated
practice will enable the
student to conform more
to what is required and
train his hand to go no
farther than is necessary.
Fig. 6 is formed by carry-
ing the pencil with an even
rocking motion from right
to left, the hand swinging
on the wrist as a hinge.

After practicing this exercise repeatedly the student may
pass to that shown in Fig. 8, where, it will be observed,
the motion is similar but the general direction and the
resulting form of the surface covered is altered. As the
pencil descends in these zigzag curves it emphasizes the
angles, as shown at a.

Simple as these two exercises may appear, too much
attention cannot be given to them by the novice, as on their
free and successful execution depends much of the broad-
ness of his future work.

DRAWING FROM NATURE

8. In Fig. 9, the direction of the stroke is different from

that in the previous

Fig. 8

figures; the hand is
turned to rest on its
outer side, while the
elbow must be thrown
farther from the body.
The fingers grasp the
pencil much in the
same manner as be-
fore, but it is held
obliquely toward the
left. With the hand
in this position the
student should prac-
tice a number of such
exercises as a, Fig. 9,
after which the effect
may be complicated

by combining a series of these exercises in order to cover

the surface more

thoroughly, as

shown at b. At c is

shown a method of

covering the sur-
face with an even

tint, which may be

graded in depth by

varying the amount

of space between the

lines and by chan-
ging the weight of

the lines themselves,

as shown at d and e.

This gradation of

shade does not form

i. £ 4.U 4. FlG-9

a part of the stu-
dent's present exercises, but it is important that he should

DRAWING FROM NATURE

keep all attempts at surface shading within the bounds of
an even tint, as it is a simple matter to grade a tint when
one knows how to express one smoothly and evenly. These
exercises should now be repeated, but with the strokes in a

Fig. 10

horizontal position, as shown in Fig. 10; to do this it will
be necessary to change the position of the pencil and to draw
the elbow nearer the body, in order that the horizontal lines
may be more readily executed.

9. In Fig. 11, the exercise becomes more complicated
than any of the previous sug-
gestions and leads into the
first stages of the style of
rendering used for foliage.
Familiarity with this method
enables the student to devote
all his attention to the ren-
dering of the object itself when
the time comes, and he is
therefore not handicapped by
the consideration of two prob-
lems— what he is to render and
how he is to render it. Close
attention should be given to
this, as the rendering of foli-
age is one of the most intricate
problems of outdoor study, but

it is at the same time the most interesting, and therefore
the method of its handling is of importance.

12 DRAWING FROM NATURE §5

To practice Fig. 11, the pencil should be held in much the
same manner as in Fig. 9, but can be varied somewhat in
order to render the various inclinations of the lines more
readily. The series of oblique lines at a are drawn from
left to right slowly and evenly, the hand gradually descending
as each stroke is completed, while the lines shown at b are
drawn from right to left in the same manner until they inter-
sect with the first lines as shown. At c a series of short,
curved lines is drawn in the same way and should be prac-
ticed from both right to left and from left to right, as circum-
stances are likely to arise where both methods of execution
will be desirable. Having continued this practice until the
student is familiar with it, he should pass to the surface
shading shown at d where a combination of the rendering
shown in Fig. 9 and that of a, b, and c, Fig. 11, is effected.
The rendering shown at e is effected by means of the chisel-
edged pencil, but care must be taken in drawing it not to
make the lines in one long stroke, as there is a tendency for
the graphite of the pencil to become polished and the line to
vary in tint throughout its length.

Constant practice on these simple exercises cannot be
urged too strongly, as familiarity with their power of expres-
sion must be learned before the student can attempt to go
ahead with other and important work.

IMPORTANCE OF GRADATION

LIGHT AND SHADE

10. The study of light and shade in masses and in
detail forms the groundwork of all outdoor drawing from
nature. The tendency of the beginner is to try to indicate
his forms by sharp outlines; this tendency should be avoided,
as it is difficult to correct this fault when once formed and its
practice destroys the breadth and freedom in the drawing.
As a matter of fact, there is no such thing as an outline in
nature; all effects are produced by light and shade. A leaf
held before the eye seems to have a sharp outline, but this

§5 DRAWING FROM NATURE 13

outline is caused by the difference of shade between the
leaf and its background; when being drawn, the form of the
leaf, or any other object, should be expressed simply by a
proper rendering of the light-and-shade values. These must
be carefully studied and properly adjusted; the outlines of
the forms will then take care of themselves. There is a
positive reason for every bit of shadow, and a corresponding
reason for every strong light. The latter can be much more
readily understood by the student, but the gradations of
shadow are likely to be overlooked, for they are so subtle
that it is difficult to render them properly; yet when the
drawing of an object does not conform with the appearance of
the object itself, it will usually be found that the trouble lies
in the rendering of the light-and-shade values of that object.
It is better for the beginner to start a new drawing, with
his poor drawing before him as a guide of what to avoid,
rather than to rub out any portion and try to improve it.
Mistakes of this character if immediately corrected in a new
drawing will do more to train the eye than repeated changes
of a poor drawing. He should study carefully first for the
deepest shadows and then for the highest lights. The half
tones, or middle tints, are more difficult to discern, but care-
ful study will bring them out, and when once seen can be
fearlessly represented. When the high lights, the deep
shadows, and middle tones have been represented, there is
little more to be done than to grade them into one another
and to emphasize certain details that are to be made impor-
tant. This emphasis is effected by deepening certain shadows
or strengthening certain lights, as shown in Fig. 12, where
the deep shadow is effected by heavy penciling at a and the
high lights are emphasized by chalk or Chinese white at b.

11„ First Subject. — For the first attempt at outdoor
sketching, a very simple subject, such as a rock with one or
two weeds of simple character, should be taken. These
should be expressed by first laying in, in masses, the light
and shade, as shown in Fig. 13. At first the student should
attempt only to represent the division of light and shade,

DRAWING FROM NATURE

§5

Fig. 12

§5

DRAWING FROM NATURE

leaving the white paper for the former and penciling in the
latter. The shadow can then be emphasized by darker
pencilings, where necessary, and the form of the object
gradually developed by working slowly, and studying care-
fully the natural form from which he is working.

The rendering of the background and the shadow should
be effected by means of the practice lines illustrated at
a, b,c, Fig. 11. After
the sketch has been
carried about as far
as is shown in Fig. 13,
it should be laid aside
and a second one
started from the same
object, carrying it
farther. In the sec-
ond attempt the half
lights in the rock can
be indicated, suggest-
ing its uneven sur-
face, and the leaves
of the weed empha-
sized here and there by a light penciling to develop the more
prominent characteristics. These pencilings may indicate a
partially hidden stem or a shaded portion of a leaf. This
shading should not be carried too far, however, as it tends
to flatten or destroy the whole general effect.

These practical exercises should be drawn repeatedly by
the student. They are not for the purpose of making
pictures, however, but simply to train his eye and hand to
observe those subtle little details that go to make up the
characteristics of an entire subject. Drawings or sketches
of any kind can hardly be considered pictures, but simply
works of reference that may afterwards be developed into
a final subject. Numerous memoranda of this kind should
be made, however, for a few minutes frequently devoted to
these sketches will lead to the expression of ideas in a com-
paratively short time.

Fig. 13

16 DRAWING FROM NATURE §5

12. Reflections. — Having studied light and shade in
a general sense, attention may be given to certain reflections
of light observable in the shadows of an object. These
reflections are caused by the light that is thrown from sur-
rounding objects when the sun is shining brightly. While
they are an important detail in drawing, inasmuch as they
furnish the key to the difference between a lifeless and a
luminous, or transparent, shadow, they are at first hard to
discern. This fact may be clearly understood if we consider
the entrance to a cave or dark hole, which appears to us
simply as a black spot devoid of detail. If the sun is
shining near this opening, the depth of this shadow is
likely to be strengthened, but if the sun so shines on sur-
rounding objects that it reflects into this opening an amount
of light that permits in the deepest shadow certain vague
forms to be seen, the shadow becomes transparent or
luminous and gives a life to the scene that it would not
otherwise contain.

In strong sunlight certain objects will cast peculiarly
shaped shadows; the cause of these should be carefully
studied, as familiarity with the cause will facilitate the
rendering of the effect. It should be borne in mind that
progress can be made only by incessant observation and
uninterrupted activity, and no opportunity to learn some-
thing should be neglected. Something can be learned every
time one looks at an object of nature, no matter how familiar
it may be to him.

The student must always be on his guard, too, against
falling into habits that are prejudicial to good results. For
instance, as he acquires a certain degree of skill with his
pencil, he is likely to overlook a most important detail — the
comparison of his rendering, as it progresses, with the
object itself. At each stage of the work he should hold his
drawing at arm's length, or get up and walk away, to study
it in comparison with what nature is holding up to him. Fre-
quent comparisons of this character will point out many
errors, whereas a deep interest in the work and a conscious
improvement in his method will have a tendency to lead to

§5 DRAWING FROM NATURE 17

a neglect of the model. Comparison will train the eye to
follow more truthfully the subject being portrayed and will
prevent the making of the too common error of trying to
render from memory that which is to be rendered by direct
portraiture. This method is considered so important by
professional artists that it is customary for them to work
standing in front of their pictures, in order that they may
readily walk away and regard them from a distance instead
of under the somewhat deceptive conditions of close contact.
When a student makes these comparisons and finds his
study is at fault, he should endeavor to discern wherein that
fault lies and then correct it. The difficulty will probably lie
in the rendering of his light and shade, or its comparative
depth and delicacy.

13. Quality. — A picture to be of fine quality requires
a particular appreciation of light and shade, a full expression
and value of reflected lights, and a general harmony of all
the parts that make it pleasing to the eye. Quality gives
meaning and expression to the homeliest object. A piece of
old broken board can possess quality if properly drawn; but
the most beautiful tree, or combination of trees, are nothing
but a lot of pencil scratches, meaningless, and without
interest, when badly drawn and devoid of quality.

The true instinct of art is to make everything interesting;
in order to do this as much interest must be taken in the
rendering of the most commonplace object as in delinea-
ting the finest and most beautiful subject. It must never be
assumed that homely things can be slurred over hurriedly in
order that time may be devoted to more interesting ones.
The plainest object becomes a thing of beauty when satis-
factorily rendered under the artist's pencil, and much more
can be learned from it than from something that is at first
much more attractive. One of the most interesting details
of oriental art is the care that is bestowed on all parts of the
work, no matter how commonplace they may be. In render-
ing an object for decorative purposes, the Orientalist gives
every detail its honest share of attention. For instance, a

18 DRAWING FROM NATURE §5

study of a few Japanese or Chinese sketches will show the
observer that the thunderbolt bursting from the heavens is
of no greater importance than the butterfly flitting from
flower to flower, as each is properly and emphatically ren-
dered with the greatest care of which the artist is capable.

14. In working out of doors the student will soon
observe that the shapes and positions of the shadows vary
during the day. Therefore, when he intends to devote an
entire day to outdoor work he must be prepared to execute
two drawings — one in the morning when the sun is working
from the east to the zenith, and one in the afternoon as the
sun settles from the zenith to the western horizon. In the
morning the shadows will be cast toward the west and in
the evening toward the east. It will be found that from
9 o'clock in the morning until noon the shadows shorten
very rapidly. Work on the morning study should therefore
cease at least half an hour before 12 o'clock, and if the
work is unfinished it should be resumed at an earlier hour
some other day. If this rule is not followed, there is apt to
be a false appearance in the shadows, which will give a
wrong impression as to the character of the picture.
Besides, 2 hours is sufficient time to work at any one
subject without rest.

About 1 o'clock in the afternoon work can be resumed.
A study of some other object or view should be begun and
the general masses of its shadows located at the time of day
that they are most interesting; if the student waits until late
in the day the shadows will lengthen and the study become
less interesting than in the beginning.

In Fig. 14 is shown an afternoon study where, by the
shadows, it will be seen that the sun was in front of and to
the right of the artist. Little detail is therefore seen in the
trees, as the masses of leaves profile themselves against the
lighter distant background. As the sun sinks lower and
lower, after 4 o'clock, these profiled masses will become
more prominent and the picture will soon lose all of its most
distinguishing characteristics.

20 DRAWING FROM NATURE §5

The student absorbed in his work, neglectful of time, will
possibly not notice the setting of the sun until there is a
sudden, brilliant illumination over the entire landscape that
arrests his attention, and he looks up to discover that the sun
is about to drop below the horizon. This brilliancy lasts for
a few moments only and is characteristic of the few minutes
immediately preceding sunset. The sun then drops out of
sight and a cool grayness settles over the entire view so
lately glowing in brilliant light. The subjects of his study
have now become dull and meaningless, and the rapid gather-
ing twilight will gradually merge one mass into another
until the outlines are entirely lost in darkness. To the
artistic spirit these few minutes preceding sunset are the
grandest of the day, but so subtle is the illumination and so
brief is the time during which it exists that but few success-
fully achieve its rendering on paper.

DETAILS OF A PICTURE

FOREGROUND AND DISTANCE

FOREGROUND

15. Every picture that represents an outdoor scene can
be divided into two general details — its foreground and its
distance — each of which should be so handled as to emphasize
or give proper value to the other. It should be borne in
mind that the eye is not capable of focusing itself and
receiving a distinct image of both foreground and distance
at the same time. When we look at a distant object the eye
adjusts itself to that distance and we see a clear image, but
if there is something much nearer to us in our field of view
there is a blurred and indistinct impression of this nearer
object impressed within the eye. On the other hand, if the
attention be directed to an object that is near to us, the eye
adjusts itself to the shorter distance, and the background or
details beyond the object become blurred and indistinct.

§5

DRAWING FROM NATURE

22 DRAWING FROM NATURE §5

This is a difficult thing for the student to realize, because
in experimenting he unconsciously turns his eye away from
one object to another, and the eye immediately adjusting
itself gives a distinct image of each. However, whether the
student can demonstrate this fact to his own satisfaction or
not, he must accept this truth and render his drawings with
foreground and distance accordingly.

In Fig. 15 is shown a view, with hazy masses of foliage
in the distance. The objects in the foreground therefore are
distinct and expressed in detail, giving depth to the picture
and a fine effect of distance. In Fig. 16, however, the dis-
tance is rendered in detail and the foreground appears as a
hazy, indistinct impression. These illustrations express very
clearly the difference in these essentials. If in them the dis-
tance and the foreground were worked up with equal care
the study would become flat and uninteresting, as the eye
would wander from one detail to another without any feeling
of repose as to what was intended for prominence. The eye
thus wanders, because it is not accustomed to seeing fore-
ground and distance at the same time distinctly expressed,
and the feeling of depth in the picture thus becomes lost.

Generally speaking, the term foreground covers that por-
tion of the landscape that lies directly in front of and nearest
to the observer, and as a usual thing the details of the fore-
ground are clearly expressed with all of their variations of
light and shade. Some scenes may possess no foreground
at all, but the introduction of some object near the observer
immediately throws depth into the picture and gives a better
idea of perspective.

16. The first bits of work that a student is likely to
practice on may be considered as foreground studies, as he
will work at first with the details, before he masses them to
make a finished picture. In Fig. 17 is shown an old stone
wall built up of ragged bits of rock and grown over with
vines and flowers that give it in all its simplicity a delight-
fully picturesque appearance. Immediately behind the wall
is a thick growth of shrubbery. This subject in all of its

§5

DRAWING FROM NATURE

§5 DRAWING FROM NATURE 25

details can be considered simply as a piece of foreground;
there is no demand for distance, which therefore is not
expressed.

A study of this kind means more than the mere objects
themselves. From a utilitarian point of view, a finely built
stone wall free from moisture-collecting vegetation and kept
continuously in good repair is far more desirable than that
shown in Fig. 17, but there is nothing artistic about it
because it tells no story of interest. There is nothing in
the crude straight lines of the utilitarian enclosure that
appeals to one and reminds him of nature's handiwork; but
with the old cobblestone wall shown, although built simply
to act as an enclosure for a field, matters are different. We
find nature touching it here and there with growths of moss
and lichen and covering the cruder parts of it with flowering
vines; the broken top, with the stones torn down, show
where some truant or sportsman has crossed the country
pursued or in pursuit; and these ideas convey to the mind a
suggestion of something more than the object itself. Details
of this character are of vast importance, as they serve for
illustrations of subjects.

Illustrations are put in a book to help tell the story; the
illustrator must be able to conjure before his mind an idea
that illustrates a certain passage in the story, which idea
must then be transformed into a visible picture so that it
can be communicated to the reader. The artist therefore
goes about with his eyes open, and every detail — regular or
irregular — that confronts him by the roadside tells a story
and conjures before his mind a picture that that detail may
form a part of.

If we approach the wall closer and study in detail the
plants and vines that are growing about it, we find a blos-
soming weed, as shown in Fig. 18. Were it growing on the
field side of a wall, it is possible that the farmer would have
torn it up and thrown it away as something useless, but to
the artist it is something more, for a sketch of it may be
useful in a number of places. This detail simply adds one
more subject that may be worked into the foreground.

DRAWING FROM NATURE

Fig. la

§5 DRAWING FROM NATURE 27

If the entire study is foreground only, as in Fig. 18, then
the details of the plants are not of such importance, as the
desire is only to express the whole mass; but occasion may
arise where a broad, open space with a hazy distance requires
a sharp, emphatic, and characteristic outline of some familiar
plant in the foreground; therefore, a closer study should be
given the weeds.

DISTANCE

17. As a usual thing, distance in a picture may be con-
sidered as an effect more than a reality. That is to say,
objects at a remote distance from the eye remind us of their
existence simply by suggestion rather than by definition of
form. Probably the most characteristic detail of all effects
of distance is what is called the sky line, or that more or
less irregular line where the landscape profiles itself against
the sky. In marine views, the sky line consists usually
of a straight line called the horizon; in landscapes, how-
ever, buildings, trees, or mountains usually break it into an
irregular contour.

In distance we have no details to consider. The moun-
tains may be covered with trees, or their sides may be
cultivated and divided by long fences, or even in some cases
peopled with small villages; but as objects of distance, these
details merge together and simply produce an effect on the
mountain side and do not stand out with any prominence.
Clouds cast their shadows on distant hills and to a certain
extent modify the effect and coloring that would otherwise
exist; so that in the study of distant landscape it should be
borne in mind at all times that one should simply study for
the effect, and should not try to represent on paper more
than can be seen. A large stone or rock in the foreground
will cast a deep shadow and possess a number of gray tints
in its surface, as shown in Fig. 13, but place it far in the
distance and it simply becomes a bright spot on the hillside.
Its color as it lies in the foreground may be of a brownish
or yellowish hue, or it may be one of many stones that vary
somewhat from one another in general color; but as it is

28 DRAWING FROM NATURE §5

carried to the distance it gradually assumes a grayish tone
until it merges, with all other objects, into one general effect
and loses entirely its individuality of form and color.

The effect of distance can be produced in pencil drawing
only by due consideration of thus softening the suggestive
shadows of given forms. It is as though a gauze screen
were stretched over the scene and the identity of certain
objects becomes merged with others. This effect of soft-
ness, called in extreme cases haze, is sometimes referred to
in pictures as atmosphere; it cannot well be expressed in
pencil, but when properly studied can be rendered with brush
in color or in a monotint.

It should be borne in mind that the shadow of an object is
usually of more importance than the object itself, and that
this is particularly true in distance rendering, for the object
can be ignored entirely if its shadow is properly indicated.
Late in the summer and early autumn the atmosphere, or
haze, becomes very prominent; and, as the lengthening of
the shadows is suggestive of sunset, so this heavy haze
in the distance, combined with bright-colored leaves in
the foreground, is the chief characteristic that makes up
studies representative of autumn.

MIDDLE DISTANCE

18. For convenience of expression the space midway
between the foreground and the distance is termed middle
distance; it possesses characteristics that can be considered
midway between the foreground and the distance. Objects
in middle distance should be expressed in the picture mid-
way in detail between those in the distance and those in the
foreground, except in such cases where the objects in the
middle distance are the points of central interest. Fig. 19 is
a combination of these three divisions — foreground at a,
middle distance at b, and distance at c. If the middle
distance is to be the interesting part of the picture it
should be rendered somewhat in detail. The foreground,
then, being broadly expressed simply to give emphasis and

§5

DRAWING FROM NATURE

li ^JEftSsBtefe^v •

30 DRAWING FROM NATURE §5

effect to the distance, the distance itself need be but a
mere outline introduced to emphasize the importance of the
middle distance. The balancing of these details constitutes
one of the most important branches in artistic work; it is
called composition.

Middle distance, as a general rule, does not possess the
same interest in the picture as either the foreground or the
distance. It is sometimes introduced simply to emphasize
the distance and give character to the foreground. At other
times, when the beauty of the picture lies in the distant
objects, the middle distance helps to soften and grade the
rendering from the sharp shadows of the foreground to the
soft, hazy blendings in the distant hills. The middle distance
should be kept down, as a rule, and not allowed to assert
itself prominently to the detriment of other parts, unless it is
to be the most important and interesting part of the picture.

EXPRESSION OF FOLIAGE

TREES

19. As an accessory to landscape work the value of
trees and the characteristic rendering of their foliage is of
the utmost importance. In fact, drawing from nature is
dependent for its expression more on trees and foliage than
on any other details. Rarity of species or other botanical
consideration has nothing whatever to do with the value of
foliage from a pictorial point of view, as the commonest
shrub properly introduced into a picture will lend quite as
much to its interest as the representation of the rarest
exotic plant.

Suggestions have been given on the general rendering of
foliage, but in the application of this rendering to tree forms,
especial attention must be given to the rendering of those
forms in such a manner that the characteristics of the tree
will be represented. When one observes a tree and recog-
nizes it as a birch, maple, elm, or apple tree, he determines the
fact not by the general outline, nor by the form of its leaf,

§5 DRAWING FROM NATURE 31

nor by the form or marking of its trunk, but by the general
expression of all three. The manner of its growth, the
clustering of its leaves on its branches, and the distribution
of the branches about its trunk produce certain effects of
light and shade that characterize the general appearance of
each individual tree.

The student should study trees as a part of nature, not
minutely scrutinizing every detail but by slightly closing his
eyes as he looks at them, so that the details do not appear
with distinctness but impress themselves on him as small
masses of light and shade. The rendering of these masses
will then present to him a drawing of the characteristics of
that particular kind of tree. Trees possess as much indi-
viduality and character as do persons or animals, and will
appear different under different conditions, but at the same
time they will preserve the characteristic that stamps their
identity. Observe the effects on some trees both of a light
breeze and of strong sunlight. Some kinds of ash become
brilliant with flickering dots of light as a light breeze twists
their leaves and turns the silvery underside toward the sun.
Some trees and foliage, like the scrub oak and other dense
growths, present in the brilliant sunlight simply strong
masses of light and shade, and on a dark or cloudy day a
silhouette mass against the background.

20. Branches always carry out the characteristics that
dominate the formation of the trunk. Their growth and
general movement always follow lightly the construction
and character of the parent stem. If the trunk is rugged,
angular, or grotesque, the branches display these same
qualities. They may twist into snakelike forms or break
suddenly into angular elbows, as shown in Fig. 20 (a), or
may turn their leaves lightly to the breeze with a frivolity
suggestive of a full enjoyment of sunshine and brightness,
as shown in Fig. 20 (/»), or they may lift their tapering ends
toward the sky apparently tranquil and unmoved by the violent
gusts that set their neighbors quivering, as shown at (r).
These expressions should always be studied as characteristic

DRAWING FROM NATURE

§5

of certain trees. In Fig. 20, (a) is suggestive of the growth of
the oak and the apple tree, (b) of the birch and the elm,

Fig. 20

(c) of the poplar, etc. Not that these three forms are
characteristic of these trees themselves, but the manner of
their growth, the expression of patience and endurance, of

§5 DRAWING FROM NATURE 33

frivolity or of stolidity, according as each individual tree
impresses itself on the mind.

As said before, the student must learn to see before he
can learn to draw, and he is therefore advised to study con-
stantly the effects and appearances of different classes of
foliage before any attempt is made to render them according
to the suggestions made in the following pages. Studies
should then be made of tree trunks and roots (where the
latter appear above ground), of small portions of branches
(in the fall) on leafless trees, and of branches and leaves
(in the early spring) before the density of foliage hides
the characteristics of the growth.

21. Notwithstanding the fact that every tree has a char-
acteristic foliated outline of its own, a general system of

Fig. 21

rendering these outlines will be found perfectly practical in
nearly all lines of work. The difficulty first experienced by
the beginner is the representation of the foliated mass,
owing to the multiplicity of leaves at which he is inclined to
look too closely and see details instead of masses. Here

DRAWING FROM NATURE

"the innocence of the eye" is the characteristic that enables
him to represent things as they appear and not as he knows
them to be. Here is the time to close the eyes partially and
observe the effects of light and shade in various masses

entirely distinct from

any leaf or branch
formation, as shown
in Fig. 21. These
masses, whether pro-
filed against the sky
or against a back-
ground of a lighter
or darker hue, will be
outlined definitely but by an irregular contour, and a little
study will convince the student that this contour consists of
a number of toothed forms or serrated lines not greatly
unlike a series of figures 3, as indicated in Fig. 22. This
figure-3 formation should not be followed too closely, but its
application will be found of importance in nearly every

Fig. 22

•

,-"

.'-

*•■.

.-' "*

■ Z .--

-•

■ ■

1 ■

Fig. 23

foliated outline, and the emphasis of one portion of this
outline more than some other portion will tend to give the
character that will stamp a particular class of foliage.

The outline of foliage thus rendered will contain some

§5 DRAWING FROM NATURE 35

figures 3 that are sharp and angular, others that are rounded,
and still others that run together and form a continuous zig-
zag, irregular line, as shown in Fig. 23. They can thus be
varied at will, where circumstances require it, and the
student has in this simple device the means with which to
start nearly all of his foliated outlines; although there are
other devices more serviceable for expressing some specific
class of foliage, those referred to will establish a near
approach to general leafy outlines. This, however, refers
only to the outer formation of a mass of foliage. These
devices should never be carried in to the inner mass, which
should always be handled as a mass of light and shade and
rendered very differently.

22. Drawing Masses of Foliage. — In Fig. 24 it will
be observed that the mass of the foliage is made up of

■'

:,;-;--

•

Fig. 24

broad strokes, drawn largely with the wedge-shaped point
of the pencil, through which the trunk and branches are
indicated rather than clearly expressed. These flat strokes
form an even tone, varying in intensity according to the
denseness or lightness of the foliage rendered. The lines
merge into each other and form a deep shadow where the
leaves are so thick that light cannot penetrate, thus giving

36 DRAWING FROM NATURE §5

a sense of compactness without introducing any detail. This
shadow form can be carried out on the dark side of the tree
or foliage until it merges into the irregular outline, but it
must not meet the leaf outline of the light side of the tree or
it will destroy the feeling of sunlight penetrating between
the irregular leaves.

Generally speaking, the darkest shadow in foliage is near
the ground where the lower and more heavily laden branches
hang over the trunk at a downward angle. Foliage always
appears darker underneath the outside limbs and nearest the
trunk of the tree, and softens in tint as it approaches the top
for the reason that the light has a better chance to sift
through the branches. In making drawings of foliage the
subject should always be studied with partially closed eyes,
so as to reduce the intense glare of sunlight, in order that
the subject may be seen as a mass instead of as a myriad
of details.

It is practically impossible, as well as unnecessary, to
detail here the characteristics of every species and kind of
tree. The student, however, should study foliage in general,
and after becoming able to render three or four different
kinds of foliage he will find that he has become observant
of their general characteristics and is quite as. able to
render some other kind omitted in the descriptions in the
following pages.

23. The oak is probably one of the most common as
well as the most popular of American trees. Its broad-
spreading branches and thickly tufted top stamps it with a
character of strength and individuality that has caused it to
be termed "the king of the forest" by various writers. The
trunk of an old oak is usually rough and gnarled, telling a
story of storms that it has withstood and of winds that have
warped and twisted its branches.

The trunk and branches in Fig. 25 are characteristic of
this class of growth, while the broken branch on the left side
of the tree at a is characteristic of this tree inasmuch as the
lower branches are so frequently wrenched from the trunk

§5

DRAWING FROM NATURE

by the high winds. Small details of this character are of vast
importance to the art student, simple though they may be, for
on them depends in many cases the individuality of the growth.

The bark on the oak expresses itself as a series of per-
pendicular grooves and should be rendered by irregular,
disjointed lines, not
uniform in distribu-
tion or weight, but
rather crudely exe-
cuted with a tend-
ency to intermingle
and become a shad-
owy mass on the
dark side of the tree,
while the light side
is left clear to be
outlined by its profile
against a dark foli-
ated background, as
shown in Fig. 26.
On the dark shadow
side, however, the
various markings
must be emphasized
in some places to
prevent flatness and
lack of character.
These emphatic
markings will be
seen in nature to be
indentations more deeply expressed in the bark, than
some others.

The tendency of the beginner is to introduce too much
detail of this character; he should, therefore, carefully study
his subject and his drawing, and omit the introduction of any
emphasizing details after the drawing expresses itself clearly.
The pencil rendering should follow the main lines of the
grain of the bark.

■:

•

X-9

p'!

Fig. 25

DRAWING FROM NATURE

Ife - i

**..,:■*

/ s

§5 DRAWING FROM NATURE 39

The old trunk in Fig. 26 has been bent beyond the line of
its natural balance from constant exposure to winds generally

Fig. 27

prevailing in one direction. The exposed roots on the left
side show that heavier winds during the maturity of the tree
raised it from the soil from whence it sprung. These exposed

40 DRAWING FROM NATURE §5

roots, it will be observed, are usually bleached to an ashy
whiteness; they are not covered with bark, for nature intended

them to be underground to absorb sap for the nourishment
of the leaves, and when torn from their natural element
they have either died or have become simply a series of

§5 DRAWING FROM NATURE 41

connecting- tubes with the working roots in the ground and
the sap cells in the trunk.

In Fig. 27 the oak is rendered with its foliage expressed
in peculiar rambling lines; through the shadows, which
deepen in masses as the foliage approaches the trunk, are
indicated rather than clearly expressed the gnarly, irregular
forms of the twisted branches. The outlines of the foliage
here express the application of the figures 3, as shown in
Fig. 22. After this general outline has been sketched, the
masses of the foliage should be rendered by short pencil
strokes until they are expressed, as shown in Fig. 28.

24. The apple tree possesses somewhat the same
characteristics as the oak, but the similarity exists more in
the trunk and limbs than in the general foliage. The same
system of treatment can be used for both species, but the
handling of the foliage should follow more closely the sug-
gestions illustrated in Figs. 21 and 24. In Fig. 29 the
crooked, twisted boughs are left more exposed than they
ordinarily appear in the natural tree, so as to give a better
idea of this irregular formation. Apple trees have charac-
teristically short, thick trunks. They seldom grow straight
out of the ground, but lean according to climatic and other
conditions. A large crop of fruit in their youth will often
cause a permanent leaning in one direction; frequent pre-
vailing winds will carry off the blossoms in early spring
more from one side than another, thereby causing less fruit
to ripen on the windward side and thus incline the tree in
the opposite direction.

Apple trees form an interesting study for the artist on
account of the dash and independence expressed in their
growth. They also form, as do other fruit trees, three
separate subjects for illustration. In March and April, their
blossoms opening before the green leaves form a brilliant
pink-and-white mass beautifully suggestive and often used
as symbolic of spring. In July, August, and September,
their boughs become laden with yellow and red fruit and are
used symbolically as expressive of approaching fall and

42 DRAWING FROM NATURE

§5 DRAWING FROM NATURE 43

the harvest; and later, the leafless trees with their gnarly
boughs and rugged trunks are strongly expressive of
approaching winter.

25. Tlie Elm. — In direct contrast to the rugged, homely
dignity of the apple tree, we have the elm, whose tall,
graceful form and radiating limbs are seldom sufficiently
clothed with leaves to hide their symmetry and regularity.
The elm tree is a tree of beauty, and it seems to exist solely
to please the esthetic eye. It is always in harmony with the
landscape, whether alone or in clusters, in a meadow, or
leaning on the bank of some stream where its delicate lines
are reflected in the water. Where elms exist about our
homes or in our public parks they are usually protected,
not only on account of their shade but also on account
of their beauty and refined dignity.

Though so characteristic in outline that their form can
never be mistaken for another variety of tree, their outlines
are so varied that no two of them seem to bear the slightest
resemblance to each other. Some forms present fuzzy
tipped foliage somewhat like gigantic ferns, as shown in
Fig. 80. The soft green extending across the boughs
exposes the length of the limb beneath, on which the
sunlight plays in bright patches. Though the foliage is
expressed in masses of light and shade, as in other growths,
the shadow is never as deep as with the oak and apple, but
preserves a transparency through which all the details of
growth can usually be observed. When profiled against the
sky, patches of blue are observable all through the upper
branches and give a lightness and transparency to the
growth that is characteristic of no other tree. Other elms
spread out in a fan form, as shown in Fig. 31; the lower limbs
grow straight and the foliage comes out in large masses
at the top, causing them to spread out umbrella-fashion,
casting a deep, somber shade over their surroundings, but the
general characteristics of the tree remain ever the same.

26. Drawing the Foliage of the Elm. — The foliage
of the elm can best be expressed by a series of short parallel

DRAWING FROM NATURE §5

DRAWING FROM NATURE

§5

lines, as shown in Fig. 32 (a), afterwards strengthened to
form the deeper shadows, as shown in Fig. 32 {b) . The trunk
is moderately smooth and the indentations less apparent than

in other trees. The
lack of the appearance
of strong markings on
the trunk of the elm is
due to two causes:
first, to the absence of
deep indentations in
the bark; second, to
the fact that as the
general beauty of the
tree lies almost exclu-
sively in its general
formation and foliage,
the eye dwells but a
short time on the trunk
and does not take in all
of its characteristics.
In drawing, the trunk
should first, be ren-
dered in outline, as
shown in Fig. 33, and
then slightly shaded
to indicate the dark
side of the tree.
Care should be exercised in drawing all trees — particularly
the elm — that even the largest branch is never as large as
any part of the trunk, and that branches leading from larger
limbs are always smaller than those limbs. There is a con-
stantly decreased proportion as one part grows out of another
and the tree thus grows lighter toward its top and extremities,
while the trunk acts as the parent of the whole and in quiet
dignity supports the entire system.

(b)

- - " ' j ;•

- 1 gi

•

(a)

27. The beech tree is entirely different from those
heretofore considered. The bark is nearly smooth and the

§5

DRAWING FROM NATURE

lines of the bark run around the trunk rather than perpen-
dicularly, except where it has become split and forms deep
fissures, as shown in Fig. 34. On the surface of the older
trunks, small knobs form, but these are not characteristic of
the younger trees. The foliage is quite thick but much less
bulky than that of the oak, and the outlines of the foliage
are indicated in an entirely different manner. The pencil
strokes should be short and accented at one end, as shown
in Fig. 35 (a), and should be nearly parallel to the lines of
the short limbs from which the foliage springs. The leaves
grow loosely along each twig, producing the open and
dainty effect of leaf-
age, shown in the more
finished sketch, Fig.
35 (b)} which is very
pretty but rather diffi-
cult to suggest with-
out running into com-
plications. The boughs
are limber and sway
widely in the wind, thus
preventing the shad-
ows cast by them on
the ground from being
definite in form. In
characteristic illustra-
tions, it is necessary
that the softness of the
edges of the shadows
cast by the limbs of the
beech tree be charac-
teristic of the sketch.

28. The willow is

a beautiful and charac-
teristic tree almost always associated with the river bank or
brook side. It is not characteristically a shade tree, for
although as a rule very large and luxuriant in growth, it is so

■

•

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■

•
1

DRAWING FROM NATURE

§5

DRAWING FROM NATURE

open in its foliated structure that the sun easily finds its way
through the leaves and easts but a small and spotted shadow-
on the ground. The common willow growing along the brook
side is usually so thickly foliated that scarcely any of its trunk
can be seen, but the
Pollard willow grows
with a heavy trunk and
small branches, there
being characteristically
few heavy branches in
its entire makeup. The
common willow, when
separated from the
marshy ground of the
brook or river side,
grows into a large and
bulky tree, as shown
in Fig. 86. The trunk
is rough and deeply
scored and from it
branch long, slender,
featherlike twigs with
tapering leaves that
wave gently in the
breeze and give the
entire tree a soft, indis-
tinct outline character-
istic of its species.

21>. It is in trees of
this character, whose
leaves are ever moving
and thereby unable to
make a clear impres-
sion of outline within the eye, that we are forced to use the
stomp as an accessory in pencil drawing. The stomp consists
of a roll of paper or chamois leather pointed at one end, with
which the sharpness of outlines can be softened and the hard

t .. t.

/f. it

. . ■

* w

.*.

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•■/■

Kb)
Fig. 35

DRAWING FROM NATURE

contour of a drawing blended gently into the background.
The stomp is sometimes used instead of the pencil, by
rubbing it on crayon or charcoal scrapings until the end is

Fig. 36

black, and then applying it to the drawing paper to make
soft, blended tones instead of sharp pencil marks. In pencil
drawings, the stomp can be with advantage applied to the

DRAWING FROM NATURE

sandpaper pad on which the pencil has been sharpened,
taking- therefrom some of the scraped pencil lead, which
can afterwards be applied in strokes or spots in order to

: •-.

' i ■

» :/ dtfc .-

.,. ,

Fir,. 37

produce a soft, smoky effect, as illustrated in Figs. 36 and 37.

The weeping willow, shown in Fig. 37, so called on

account of its long, trailing branches, is not so common as

DRAWING FROM NATURE

the ordinary kind and therefore is not so well known. Its
long, pendant, whiplike boughs are graceful and pleasing.
The method of handling this subject in drawing is shown in
Fig. 38 (a). It is similar to the rendering of the common

willow, shown in Fig.
38 (/>), except that
the stomp need be
used with the weep-
ing" willow only where
the ends of the
branches hang and
it is desired to give
the blurred or soft
effect characteristic
of movement in the
wind.

30. White, or sil-
ver, bircli trees are

rare in some parts
of the United States,
but seem to thrive
in northern climates.
The finer specimens
grow to a large size
and their silvery bark
splits and peels from
the trunk through the
influence of the warm
sun of summer and
the cold winds of

Fig. 38

winter.
Fig. 30 illustrates a characteristic trunk of an old birch
tree, the bark being peeled from many places. The white
rendering in other parts is expressed by means of ordinary
chalk. It is well, where objects of this character are drawn,
to use a gray or tinted paper, as the characteristic whiteness
of the bark and of the high lights on their foliage can be

§5

DRAWING FROM NATURE

Fig. 39

.54 DRAWING FROM NATURE §5

expressed by the application of chalk marks and thus ren-
dered very emphatic. It will be observed that where bark is
peeled off the tree, the tint is darker. This is due to the
fact that under the white bark of the birch lies a second
layer of a rich yellow color, and under that a layer that runs
to a yellowish brown. It is well that these facts should be
clearly understood, for the value of the various tones and
tints represented in a pencil drawing must be made to
accord with the actual colors existing in nature, and too
much attention cannot be given to the impression created
within the eye by the various tints of green, brown,
and yellow that are everywhere abundant in drawings
from nature.

The grain of birch bark runs around the trunk, so that
when it is stripped from the trunk the lines of the stripping
are straight and parallel, but the markings of the bark itself
may be observed to run perpendicularly here and there.
Where, either from natural causes or through the stripping
of the bark as souvenirs, a cut has been made in it, the bark
will curl out of it and away from the trunk of the tree as it
dries, leaving scrolls and perpendicular lines in contrast with
and giving variety to the general lines of the trunk shading.
The younger trunks are often free from markings of any
kind and form a dainty white column surmounted by a dome
of green that is at once conspicuous and beautiful in the
general landscape, as shown in Fig. 40.

31. The general foliage should be handled with down-
ward strokes running into little masses of light at the end
of the branches, as indicated in Fig. 41, while on the sunlit
side the softness and delicacy of the leaves should be
expressed by the omission of all shading, other than is
necessary to express the general grouping on the surface.
The leafage catches the light and holds it in masses, which
is singular, considering its loose and free setting on the
boughs. The limbs are uniform and lack any characteristic
eccentricity that might be expected of a tree so subjected to
climatic influences.

§5

DRAWING FROM NATURE

•

>-."

-~- - _

• ■ ■ - - —

urfj

**c

1 ^3

-£^'

/ -V

• .'V' '" '

56 DRAWING FROM NATURE §5

In studying- this tree, all these details should be borne in
mind and emphasized in the drawing- so that they may not
be omitted where the illustration of the birch tree forms a
detail of a subject. The black and yellow birches are much
more common than the white. They have the same general

markings on the bark,
while the branches and
foliage are much the
same. The bark, how-
ever, is of a darker
color, and these trees
do not possess the
same attractiveness to
the artist as do the
silver birches.

The trunks of young-
birches may be best
expressed by showing
as much white paper as
FlG-41 possible, as in Fig. 42,

indicating the markings of the bark here and there and
emphasizing certain parts where the bark is peeled off. If
in this emphasis a curled bark is shown, so much the better,
although this is not necessary except where the drawing-
requires an absolute portrait of the birch itself.

32. Pine trees and other evergreens include a large
family whose chief characteristic is the property of remain-
ing green all the year round. None of them have a regular
leaf, so characteristic of other trees, but at the end of their
branches grow a series of needlelike spurs that give a stiff
regularity to their outline, which is characteristic of the
species.

The tall pine illustrated in Fig. 48 is characteristic in its
general appearance of the spruce, fir, juniper, balsam, larch,
etc., any one of which forms a conspicuous figure in a sunny
landscape by its dark-green outline being sharply profiled
against the background. Pines, however, are usually banded

DRAWING FROM NATURE

Fi<;.42

DRAWING FROM NATURE

§5

DRAWING FROM NATURE

together in groups and are found more abundantly in north-
ern, or cold, climates. The pine tree, too, must be considered
carefully in connection with the general landscape, as it is a
simple matter to place it amid surroundings entirely incon-
gruous. A pine is seldom seen alone in the middle of a grassy
meadow, by the side of a bubbling brook, or in low, sandy
soil. On a rocky hillside, in the dense forest overhanging a
running stream, or with numerous others forming a grove, it
is characteristic and appropriate.

When seen alone, as in Fig. 48, the trunk of the pine can
be traced very clearly throughout its entire length. The
branches radiate from
the trunk almost hori-
zontally and seldom
break into small
growths; from the
sides and ends of
the branches, short,
straight twigs spring,
bearing the long pine
needles heretofore
described. The trunk
is rough, yet not
deeply scored and is
seldom very large in
comparison with the
height. The limbs
at the top usually
slant toward the sky and are short and thinly foliated, but
toward the bottom the limbs become more and more
horizontal until the lower ones droop toward the earth,
owing to their great length. There is very little of the
trunk above ground to the point where the branches com-
mence, and the lower branches are often seen trailing on
the ground.

The stiff little spiky foliage is best represented by a
sketchy stroke of the pencil, as shown in Fig. 44, Which
may be shaded underneath by the introduction of a little

Fig. 44

60 DRAWING FROM NATURE §5

stomp work. The outline touches, however, must be very
irregular, in order to prevent a stiff fuzziness that is more
characteristic of foliage forms than of pine needles.

GRASS

33. Ordinary field grass may be seen everywhere in
abundance, but a word or two as to its handling is necessary
in order that the student may get the proper idea. All that
is required in rendering grass with the pencil is a certain
deftness of touch. It is soon learned, when the hand has
accomplished the foregoing exercises. The stroke is not
unlike foliated shading and may be seen by referring to
a, Fig. 45, where the short, sketchy lines indicate a growth

0 i

of grass; the lines shown at />, Fig. 45, are suggestive of
the taller forms of grass, the latter being indicated usually
by the wedge-shaped pencil. In doing this, the pencil
should be placed at the root of the grass and the stroke
drawn in the direction of the blade, curling slightly in the
direction the wind blows. The paper should be left blank
in places near the roots, as this suggests falling of sunlight
in small patches and gives a softness to the whole not
otherwise obtainable. Some blades should be drawn more
heavily than others and these should be always darker at
the bottom.

§5

DRAWING FROM NATURE

ACCESSORIES TO LANDSCAPES
34. Logs and Rocks. — In order to give depth to land-
scapes, it is sometimes necessary to represent a log or a
trunk of an old tree in the foreground. This being near the
eye, attracts the attention and gives the viewer an oppor-
tunity to judge the proportions of the rest of the picture, as
a log or other commonplace subject gives a fairly definite
idea to the mind of the average individual. Having estab-
lished this idea mentally, the viewer can judge the relative
proportions of the rest of the picture.

? f

In drawing the log it is not necessary nor desirable that it
should be characteristic of any class of tree. A log is a
log, when it comes to landscape work, and one never stops
to analyze whether it is the log of an oak tree, a chestnut
tree, or an apple tree. The rendering of its bark can there-
fore be somewhat of a conventional character, as shown in
Fig. 46, but the markings of its end or cross-section should
be sharply indicated, to show that it is an old log and has
been subjected to the wrecking influences of the weather.

62 DRAWING FROM NATURE §5

Stones and rocks serve a similar purpose, particularly
where water is introduced in the foreground, Fig. 47; these
details serve to give prominence to the near part of the

Fir,. 47

picture, add depth to the study, and create a feeling of
distance.

With this study of distance comes the necessity of a

■■ hi <--:■■; 6] v >■ ■

■

>
■

64 DRAWING FROM NATURE §5

knowledge of the gradations in tints in order to express the
position of certain objects relative to one another, as shown
in Fig. 48, where the foliage is entirely the same in charac-
ter from one end of the illustration to the other, but the left
end is made to recede by lightening the touch and at the
same time decreasing the distinctness with which the forms
and outlines are expressed. The eye being accustomed to
seeing near things distinctly and distant objects vaguely, at
once is possessed with a feeling of distance and perspective
in such a drawing.

Sometimes the foreground will admit of the introduction
of a fence post and tree stump, or of an old bar gate, as

Fig. 49

shown in Fig. 49, all of which can be worked up to any
degree necessary in order to arrest the eye in the foreground.
The distance should then be carefully carried out in a hazy
sort of way in order that it may give depth to the picture and
not encroach too closely upon the object that is illustrated.

Generally speaking, the rendering of all classes of foliage
is the same whether it be in the foreground or in the dis-
tance, but there are certain characteristics of each class that
must be emphasized when the tree or shrubbery is in the

§5 DRAWING FROM NATURE 65

foreground, if it is desired that the character of that tree is
to be expressed in the picture.

Sharp outline and minute detail is to be avoided in all
illustrative work. Masses of light and shade alone should
be used to create the outline of an object, as well as its dis-
tance, the relative value of the light and shade masses being
of less importance as the object recedes from the eye.

35. With the exception of marine subjects, which con-
stitute a study by themselves, water as an accessory in
landscape sketching is a simple subject to master. It is
usually expressed by straight lines more or less accented
according to its distance from the eye.

In Fig. 50 is shown a simple effect of shrubbery and stones
with their reflections in the water. The handling of the
shrubbery is in no way different from the examples described,
while the water is represented by a series of broken horizon-
tal lines suggestive of a quiet stream. Where the shrubbery
is dense behind the stones, it is represented by deep shadows
on account of the shutting off of direct light. The reflections
of the stones in the water are not strongly defined, except at
the point of contact between the water and the stones them-
selves. The general shading and distinctness of the reflec-
tions lose in definition as they recede from the eye, and the
shrubbery and stones grow lighter as they extend into the
sunlight. The foliage and shore in the distance are effected
by a lightness and delicacy of tint, thus giving, combined
with its reduced proportions, the effect of perspective. Little
reflection can be seen here, and a few soft lines of shading in
the water is all that is required.

30. Lines of reflection in water are variable and depend
on different conditions of the atmosphere and surrounding
influences. No rule as to the length of reflections or grada-
tion of lines can be given. These must be studied as they
appear in nature and cannot be illustrated by any series
of drawings, as no two conditions will produce similar

66 DRAWING FROM NATURE §5

results; but, like the general handling for foliage, the simple
delineation of water effects by means of horizontal lines
can be varied to suit the majority of cases. As they
approach the eye, the lines become more broken and
show broader spaces between; the reflections of trees and
objects along the banks become broken up by these lines
and produce the effect of ripples as the water is roughened
in the breeze.

In drawing reflected trunks and shrubbery, the lines
should not be hard or continuous, but softened and blended
somewhat into the general shadow. In working outdoors,
the student will observe that all shadows soften with a
gradually lessening force until they are lost in a mass of
varied tints.

There are occasions when the water possesses a mirror-
like stillness; the reflections are then as sharp and distinct
as the subject itself (as shown near the bank in Fig. 50).
But, as a rule, a light breeze will roughen up the water
somewha'. distant from the shore and leave the distinct
reflections close in shore, cutting them off sharply where the
ripples pass over the surface. This phase of reflections is,
as a rule, not so pleasing in art work, unless it is intended to
be the subject of the composition. The soft, mysterious,
and subtle reflections in rippled water is far more popular
and appeals more to the artistic eye. Toward sundown a
charming effect may occasionally be observed, where the
objects on the bank are reflected in elongated, perpendicular
lines like delicate fringes, and common objects such as grass
or sticks are difficult to recognize.

Reflections vary so rapidly that it is necessary to observe
closely and receive impressions of their form if they are to
be sketched on paper, as they do not last long in any one
shape. If the impression is not securely received at first it
must be abandoned for another, as a change of wind will
vary the form of reflections almost indefinitely.

It should be remembered that the effects of reflection are
much more prominent in shadow than in sunlight. Near the
shore where the trees hang over and shade it, the water

§5

DRAWING FROM NATURE

...•'.

■

■.' >

■

. * , % ■:

68 DRAWING FROM NATURE §5

carries the combined tones of all that grows above it and
often merges into an intense dark tint near the shore. This
dark tint is broken by occasional bright lines, due to ripples
receiving and reflecting the sunshine, but these are not so
light as those in midstream.

37. A stony brook or creek makes an attractive subject
for study, especially when stones are scattered along its
edges and through its shallow bed. These introduce varied
forms and tints and contrast well with the clear water that
ripples around them. Should the banks be fringed with
bushes, as they usually are, these will form the central
feature of the landscape, while the stones and rippling water
go to form a pleasing foreground. This is only the case,
however, where the shore is in strong sunlight, for when in
shadow the shore becomes a matter of distance, and the
stones and rippling water themselves form the foreground
and subject of the composition.

Lakes are rather more difficult to represent in pencil
studies than are streams, owing to the broad, unbroken
expanse of water. There is little gradation of light and
shade throughout the surface, except that produced by
reflected clouds, which will be considered later. . Near the
shores, however, the water will darken by the reflection of
the foliage, but the dark surface will be broken in patches
by a rippling breeze.

38. As a usual thing, the representation of water in
bright sunshine should be expressed with as few lines as
possible, the white drawing paper being left to produce this
effect. This treatment can be made much more effective by
the introduction of delicate lines leading from the light and
gradually deepening as they recede into the shadow spaces
near the banks. When the trees along the stream are dark
the shadows below them will also be dark, but much less
distinct than the original objects. When the foliage above
the bank shows occasional glimpses of sky between the
branches, these patches of light show also in the quiet
water, but are much softened.

§5 DRAWING FROM NATURE 6y

Shallow streams are often so clear that the pebbled bottom
is perfectly distinct, but these pebbles should not be indicated
in a sketch, as it would destroy the effect of the presence of
the water. The representation of the shadowy depth along
the bank of a stream helps to give that limpid effect so
characteristic of water.

In Fig. 50 is shown a mountain brook shut in between
well-wooded banks, and though deeply shaded in places, the
sunlight breaks through the foliage and lights up the stones
and water with patches of brilliancy. The reflections of the
trees and stones break up its surface with shadows, the thick
foliage on the left causing a deep shade, and the dead pines
on the right acting less markedly as their lack of foliage
permits the sun to shine through on the stream. In Fig. 53
there is nothing different from previous illustrations, but the
details are combined here to form a picture and the illustra-
tion is somewhat more complicated, as it possesses more
details, although they have been illustrated separately before.

It must be borne in mind that with the combination of two
or more objects in one composition or picture, more thought
is required in order that the parts may balance well. One
must also learn to depend on his own knowledge and ability
in rendering and compare his effects with those described as-
individual objects in previous studies. He must learn to
depend more and more on himself and work continuously
out of doors, benefiting by the criticisms he has received
and applying those benefits as he progresses. He will
develop his own individuality by experimenting boldly, and
even though his results are not satisfactory at first he will
have learned something, if it is only in some cases the
avoidance of certain methods of reproduction.

SKY

39. The manipulation of the pencil to produce sky
effects is one that introduces lines to express different
kinds of clouds. A placid, quiet sky can be rendered by
fine horizontal lines made with a light, delicate touch, as

70 DRAWING FROM NATURE §5

shown in Fig-. 51. Character can oe imparted to clouds by
curving the lines somewhat, as shown in Fig. 52; this can be
varied to any degree, representing the large, soft, fleecy

clouds characteristic of a bright summer day or the heavy
thunder clouds lying close to the horizon. The selection of
a suitable sky with the landscape is a matter of great impor-
tance, and when a lowering sky is in keeping with the picture,

Pig. 52

the gray tones of the clouds can be made more somber with
few strong lights, unless in some one spot.

In Fig. 53 is shown the border of a lake with a cloudy sky

§5

DRAWING FROM NATURE

characteristic of a stormy day. The foliage of the trees is
so rendered as to give the feeling- of fog or fine rain, an

effect that is best rendered by means of the stomp. Wind-
swept clouds that betoken an approaching storm, or one
clearing away, can also be best effected by means of the

Fig. 54

stomp, as shown in Fig. 54. The landscape and foliage,
where outlined against the sky or dark clouds, is rendered
with a sharp pencil in fine, light touches. Atmospheric

72 DRAWING FROM NATURE §5

effects can best be produced with the stomp. In rendering
cloud effects, its wielding point gives a soft, fleecy effect that
can be obtained in no other way. In Fig. 54, the effect of
the approaching storm is heightened by the feeling of move-
ment in the little foliage that is expressed, as the trees and
grasses appear wind swept. This effect is produced by
causing the lines of the foliage to follow the direction of the
clouds, and by rendering the clouds and landscape in dense
tints and compact forms.

In some compositions it is desirable to keep the sky down
to an even gray tint without clouds, as under these conditions
it serves to bring out the middle distance and foreground.

A picture should seldom have more than one object of
importance, and if an elaborate sky is introduced the entire
landscape should be an accessory; on the other hand, if the
center of interest is in the landscape, then the sky should be
of a comparatively somber character.

MOUNTAINS

40. Mountains in themselves are full of interest in a
picture and afford a subject for special and minute study.
A mountain line is frequently of much value in securing a
picturesque effect and it always lends distance and depth to
a composition. This outline may be rugged, suggestive of
rocky cliffs, or it may be smooth and graceful or softly
undulating, according to the character of the subject depicted.
As a rule, mountains form a distant feature, although they
are occasionally introduced as middle distance with a more
distant range to set them off.

Great consideration must be given to the introduction of
mountains in any composition, as a mountain introduced in a
broad level stretch of land would be as much out of place as
an ocean steamer on a small creek. There is nothing to
lead up to it, nothing to suggest its dignity or its majesty,
and everything to cause it to appear out of place. The
characteristic feature of the mountain is its outline. Even a
slight elevation or a faint depression makes a great dif-
ference. If distant, a delicate gray tint on the shadow side

§5

DRAWING FROM NATURE

74 DRAWING FROM NATURE §5

must denote its uneven surface, and the outline of the
lighter side must be profiled against the next distant moun-
tain. The shading should grow more delicate as each form
recedes into the distance, as shown in Fig. 55, where the
thickly wooded mountain tongue extends into the water
in the middle distance and the hazy peak beyond is scarcely
a shade darker in color than the sky against which it is pro-
filed. The last ridge should only be left visible by a soft
outline, often with no shading at all — a mere hint of a
mountain.

Where the mountain approaches the foreground sufficiently
for its foliage to be visible, it must be represented by a
light, general-tone rendering with a soft, broad-edged pencil,
or a stomp, and the foliage worked against it, as shown in
Fig. 55. The foliage must not be made too distinct, how-
ever, as a mountain must always be somewhat distant from
the eye in order to embrace its entire outline, and the details
of the foliage at such a distance cannot be clearly seen.

41. The immediate foreground, where introduced against
a mountain, middle distance, or distance, is of vast impor-
tance and should be suggestive of climate or locality. Apple
trees and other orchard growths would be highly out of
place in such a composition, whereas Adirondack birches
and Norway pines are in perfect harmony. The existence
of pines is suggestive of a rugged, barren climate and they
are particularly harmonious in a rocky landscape with heavy
boulders and other irregular forms in the foreground. The
eye is easily led along to the mountain elevation, and a
suggestion of its power and grandeur may be produced by
the surroundings. On the other hand, a quiet valley or a
woodland scene suggestive of repose requires unobtrusive
forms, and a distant mountain form will lend to it the desired
effect. It should be soft and hazy in outline, breaking into
the horizon, and gradually growing fainter as it melts away
into the sky. This is shown in Fig. 56, where the distant
mountain is of little importance in itself, but its presence
gives emphasis to the foreground.

§5 DRAWING FROM NATURE 75

76 DRAWING FROM NATURE §5

The division of light and shade in such a subject is not
always easy to manage. The apple tree on the left is in
blossom and forms a prominent detail in the foreground;
the fence is in strong sunlight and the trees at the right are
touched with spots of light where the sun falls on them.
Light falls also on the distant mountain and the grasses in
the foreground catch it in broad patches, but the mountain
must be made little of, and the apple tree and the fence
introduced as a connecting line of sunlight, softened some-
what as it falls on the trees at the right, as these are more
distant, and the emphasis in the sunlight effects expressed

Fro. 57

on the blossoms of the apple tree and the grass of the fore-
ground. This is effected by passing over the trees on the
right a light, even tint that is scarcely perceptible and break-
ing the sky line of the mountain with a softened tint of the
sky, which makes it a degree paler. The blossoms on the
apple tree are brought out by a dark cloud back of them.

Many mountains or cliffs have little vegetation on them
and the seams and rough, stony surfaces show plainly in
some places, while others are covered with soft verdure.
No mountain, however, should be represented with an even
mass of foliage, as it is too monotonous to be picturesque
and rarely exists in nature.

§5 DRAWING FROM NATURE 77

In Fig. 57 is shown a rocky cliff, from which the student
can learn the mode of handling these surfaces. The soften-
ing of the tints, effected by both perpendicular and horizon-
tal lines, gives to the illustration that cold crudeness so
characteristic of this class of objects. The distinctness with
which the irregularities show determine the prominence of
the detail and the extent to which it claims recognition in
the foreground. It can be made to retire by blending tints
closer together into an even tone, or brought into promi-
nence by showing the rough jaggedness of the crags and
crevices. In some of these clifflike formations vegetation
may be represented, but it should be of a wild character,
in keeping with the general subject.

BUILDINGS

42. Building's as an accessory to landscapes must be
introduced entirely with a view to environment. Usually
formal in shape, they are severe and difficult to introduce
into anything of as wild a character as nature's formations.
Where architectural effects are to be obtained, the relations
are reversed, as the landscape is then an accessory to the
architectural subject. An artistic country house or a cabin
sometimes adds a note to the picture and gives life to it, and
one or more figures add a note of human interest. When
appropriately chosen, they are always a pleasing accessory,
but must be in harmony with their surroundings. A happy
finishing touch to a picture is only imparted when the figure
carries out the sentiment of the landscape.

The old house in Fig. 58 is such as is frequently seen in
picturesque surroundings, set close beside a stream or pond
from which it is separated by the general highroad. In an
illustration of this kind the house gives a feeling of habita-
tion to the locality. The road, though devoid of figures,
gives a feeling of direction, or leading to something definite,
where habitations are represented along its side, and the
loneliness of the single house is removed by the suggestion
of a neighboring one in the distance.

78 DRAWING FROM NATURE §5

Fig. 59 combines nearly all of the details that have been
considered in this Section. We have a near mountain, an
old cabin, and a small figure; the receding mountains become
more and more delicate in touch as they disappear into the
cloudy sky, and a very light background is used for the
shaded trees on the left. The little figure near the cabin
gives life to the subject, whereas the mountain scenery
suggests a general loneliness in the surroundings. The
length of the shadows shows that it is late in the day, while

the intensity of the shadow in the foreground helps to inten-
sify the light on the mountain and emphasizes the distance.
In delineating the effect of distance full attention must be
given to the force of the foreground; as objects in the
middle distance must be softened and made less definite, so
distant objects must be much more softened and less definite
than the middle distance. Proportioning of details, of course,
is of greatest importance. No effect of distance is possible
if the objects are not reduced in the proper degree. Sof-
tened tints will be of no avail in giving effects of distance if
the distant objects are larger than those of the middle dis-
tance, but with the endless change and delicacy of gradation

§5

DRAWING FROM NATURE

80 DRAWING FROM NATURE §5

and a proper reduction in scale of the objects, the student
can produce almost unlimited effects in these details. The
most distant object should be kept delicate and flat in tone.
Strong lights or shadows destroy the effect and all minute
details are lost to the eye as objects recede.

COMPOSITION

43. When the student looks for a subject outdoors, he
should always bear in mind that certain details of his selec-
tion are most important. He should not attempt to include
too much at first. Having found an interesting subject that
seems to contain abundant material for his picture, he
should scan it carefully and choose sparingly for his picture.
It takes but little to make a good picture, if the subject is
well chosen and well done. The simplest subject is often
the most telling, when completed. A beginner is apt to be
too ambitious for his untried capacity; it is therefore best to
commence with small things and those that are easy of
execution. The student will then unconsciously extend his
work as his ability to render more difficult objects increases.

As he looks over the landscape spread out under his eye,
his first feeling will be one of bewilderment as to where to
commence. To make the vast plane, proceeding as far as the
eye can reach, has apparently no limit with the pencil, but
there is a mark which the student must set for himself:
he must decide what is most interesting. His method of
procedure can be the same as is detailed in the description
of Fig. 48. He must choose as his starting point something
prominent in the foreground as an object of measurement for
everything in the picture. If the middle distance appears
too prominent in his sketch, his proportion is probably
wrong. It does not matter if he has to begin all over again.
Nothing is lost by such errors, as the experience gained is
worth the time. A good start is worth a great deal, but the
student should proceed with his work slowly, never hurrying
through any part of it, and giving all the time necessary to
each section, thereby saving time on the whole.

§5 DRAWING FROM NATURE 81

Having drawn in a sketchy way the general foreground,
he must be careful of the space between it and the horizon.
The beginner is apt to misjudge space in drawing and
imagine things will fall into place even if they are set a
little too high, but this idea must be abandoned at once.
If his distance seems to push forwards and up on the plane
of his picture, there is but one remedy, and that is to do it
over, lessening the space between it and the nearer portions.
Correct relative proportions and spacing of objects is the
great indispensable necessity for making a successful draw-
ing from nature, and the student should shut off the space
between his hands, moving them slowly from side to side
until he includes between them such material as strikes his
fancy for the picture. Here the most prominent object that
arrests his eye must be sketched first, and all others made
accessory to it.

As the student starts to work he should ask himself three
questions: What do I see? How shall I represent it on
paper? What shall be my main idea in its rendering? The
practical answer to these three questions will give him a
key to the entire situation, and he can center his interest on
the principal subject and work from that. This is his gauge
and measure for all other objects so far as the expression of
size or light and shade is concerned, and in this way he will
get his general proportions for everything.

If he starts out to find a certain subject he has in mind,
the chances are that he will not find it as he expected. He
will find something better, or something that may be sub-
stituted for it, all depending on his art of seeing and how
well it is developed. If he sees something that suits him as
well or better than his fancied subject, he should render
what is before him.

44. In sketching from nature, the student should learn
always to take promptly the thing that presents itself to him
picturesquely. He should not count on doing it some other
time, as his humor may be different at that time and the
subject may appeal to him differently. Time and occasion

82 DRAWING FROM NATURE §5

wait for no one, and many an interesting bit of sketching is
lost by putting it off. While fixed objects cannot run away
they change materially, and it is best to secure them when
they are in sight. Detached bits and details picked up at
odd times may turn out to be the gems of one's summer
portfolio, and when one chances on an interesting piece of
foreground — an especially strong group of trees, a pretty
clump of birches, a pool of water, or other interesting acces-
sory— he should not neglect the opportunity to make a
sketch of it, even though it be but a hasty one.

Choosing the subject for a picture and choosing the subject
for a sketch are quite different problems. In selecting,
therefore, the student must have a definite purpose. If he
desires study and practice in some particular direction he
should leave out all that will detract from the careful render-
ing of the theme he needs. When in search of material for
a picture, he may choose more widely. In a picture he
needs to concentrate the interest and not scatter it over the
entire subject. If he ignores this important fact, he loses
force in his strongest part. He should concentrate his forces
where it will give the strongest effect, and he should decide
this for himself. No teacher's advice is to be desired in this
case, as no two persons see a thing in exactly the same way.
One may emphasize an object that carries a special interest
for him, and lessen the import of others to enforce his idea.
Another may ignore almost entirely a point that the first
may consider supreme, and make what he reduced to second-
ary importance the prominent theme in his picture, to which
all the others are subordinate. Each in his own way is true
to his own intuition and individuality and each may produce
an excellent picture.

So, what is looked on as a subject from nature is in
reality many subjects waiting for their different translations
through different eyes and different minds. Nature is an
inexhaustible well from which each of us may drink what
best satisfies him.

The old ideas concerning specialties in art had their
advantages in certain ways. There is no doubt that one

§5 DRAWING FROM NATURE 83

kind of subject faithfully repeated over and over begets
perfection. Yet, the broader theory of the modern art
schools produces greater variety and more general uni-
formity of good work. We see the same artist drawing all
kinds of subjects and doing them all well, and it is a ques-
tion whether earnest study in any path of art does not help
toward the fuller and better performance of every other
branch. Nature is not only indulgent and generous in her
gifts, but she is also consistent. The same elements that
make up her laboratory in the human brain for the develop-
ment of a landscape artist, also furnish material for the
entire list of art translators.

DRAWING FROM CAST

INTRODUCTION

1. The term drawing from cast is applied to the rendering,
in pencil, crayon, or charcoal, of drawings of solid objects
usually modeled in plaster of Paris for this purpose. Draw-
ings of objects of this character represent a third dimen-
sion— that of depth or thickness. Geometrically speaking, a
straight line represents length, but neither breadth nor thick-
ness. The drawing of a surface, such as a leaf or ornamental
panel, represents length and breadth but not thickness, but
the drawing of a solid object involves the representation of
this third dimension.

It is possible by means of perspective drawing to repre-
sent thickness without shades or shadows, and this is accom-
plished by two methods: first, by causing the lines of the
object to converge toward a given point — the vanishing
point; second, by representing different details of the object
smaller in scale in proportion to the distance they are from
the eye. The former method exists in the rendering of
architectural objects and geometrical forms that are bounded
by straight lines, and the latter prevails in landscape drawing,
where a distant effect is given to trees, houses, and other
accessories by rendering them proportionately smaller as
they recede from the eye.

Where drawings are rendered in light and shade, an effect
of distance is expressed by decreasing the shade values as
the object recedes from the eye, as will be explained hereafter.

As a matter of fact, there is no such thing as an outline
bounding an object in nature. The appearance of outline is

For notice of copyright, see page immediately following the title page

2 DRAWING FROM CAST §6

due to the fact that different surfaces possess different shade
values. This is illustrated in Fig. 1, where a cube is shown,
one side of which a is illuminated by the full strength of
light; the second side b is in partial shade, while the third
side c is in deep shade. Where these shade values meet,
an apparent outline is established, but the outline exists only
on account of the different shade values.

2. Value. — The term value is applied to indicate the
relation of shade tones to each other, and is dependent on
the quantity of light they reflect, regardless of their color,
and consequently many different colors may possess the
same shade value. However, there is usually quite a
decided difference in value between different colors, so
that it is possible to render a drawing in simple light and
shade, and at the same time express to a certain extent
color values.

There is this difference, however, in the system of render-
ing: In light-and-shade drawing, black is usually taken as the
standard or unit of comparison; the strongest values are
those that approach most nearly to black, and the lightest or
lowest values are those that approach most nearly to white.
In color work, however, the unit for comparison- is white,
and the strongest values are those that reflect the most light
to the eye and approach most nearly to white, while the
lowest values are those that reflect the least light or approach
most nearly to black.

It must be borne in mind, however, that in referring in
this manner to black and white, these terms or colors are
used in a general way only, and it is safe to assume for
practical purposes, that white exists only where an object is
in full sunshine, and black exists only in absolute darkness.

Both color and value are dependent on reflected light,
and where no light exists all colors appear black. This
can be understood if it is assumed that a sheet of white
paper is placed in an absolutely dark room; the paper cannot
be seen, and its value therefore is black. On the other
hand, a black cube placed in full sunlight would show in a

§6

DRAWING FROM CAST

photographic reproduction with but one of its sides black,
and that the one farthest from the sun.

In drawing an object, it
should therefore be borne
in mind that its color value
must never be confused
with its light-and-shade
value, for, as just shown, 6

a dark-colored object may
possess the lightest shade
value.

3. High JLigiit. — The

brightest spot or lowest
shade value is usually Fl<" '

called the high light, and its form and strength varies
with the character of the illumination and the surface of

the object on which
it is found.

Thus, in Fig. 1,
the high light is on
the surface a and is
moderate in tone,
giving the impres-
sion of an even, rather
dull, and smooth sur-
face. In Fig. 2, how-
ever, the high lights
are in strong con-
trast with the rest of
the surface owing to
the smoothness of the
material of which the
object is composed.
Flf. 2 The high light in this

case consists of a dis-
torted representation of the source of light itself. If a bottle
or decanter be placed on the table and viewed from different

DRAWING FROM CAST

§6

points, it will be observed that there is always a brilliant
spot on it representing the high light that is in reality a
reflection of the window opening, the gas jet, or the sun
itself, and characterizes the surface as being a smooth and
shiny one.

Where the surface is highly polished this high light will
always be a distorted reflection of the window or other
source from which the light comes. A partially or half-
polished surface will possess a marked high light also, but
owing to its lack of brilliancy and its absence of form, this
high light will convey the idea that the object has a dull,

although not absolutely
flat, surface, as shown
in Fig. 3.

4. Textures. — A

comparison of Figs. 1, 2,
and 3 will illustrate that
the character of lighting
of an object determines
its surface or material.
This characterization is
termed text lire. Thus,
in Fig. 1 is shown a
cube that may be of any solid, opaque material, with rather
a dull, unreflective surface. The texture could be empha-
sized, if of wood, by indicating the grain, if circumstances
demanded it. In Fig. 2, however, the shape of the object,
the transparency of some of its parts, and the reflected
high light, indicate conclusively that it is glass. In the
mug, Fig. 3, is seen a dull, opaque surface, with a feebly
reflected high light, and we immediately associate it with
that partially glazed earthenware so characteristic of this
class of utensil.

In drawing from cast, as a rule, but one texture is dealt
with — that of dull-surfaced plaster. Marble models would
usually possess a higher reflective surface and require a
more subtle rendering, as the high light would form an

Fig. 3

§6 DRAWING FROM CAST 5

important detail of representation. But, it must be borne in
mind that these cold plaster surfaces must be as character-
istically rendered as though each were of a different material,
in order to become familiarized with the planes or surfaces
that reflect varying degrees of light and give texture to
the subject.

5. It is most difficult for the art student to learn to see.
Few persons that have not had an art training see the objects
about them in a proper manner, and it is safe to say that
fully one-half of the people of the world go through life
and see less than one-quarter of the beautiful things about
them. Few people can give an accurate description of the
shape of an oak leaf or a maple leaf or an ivy leaf, yet many
may be able to recognize one of these the moment they see it.
A general impression has been made on the mind without
any attempt to actually see the object as it is; whereas, one
moment's careful attention to the subject will impress it on
the mind permanently.

It is the same with other objects. We see a cube such
as Fig. 1. But, few of us can sit down and draw a cube
that would look anything like the original without having
carefully studied its light-and-shade values. The art student,
then, must see these values. He must look at an object
as being composed of a number of planes or surfaces,
each one possessing a certain value, and realize that the
effect of an arrangement of these values determines the
form, proportion, and appearance of the object. This is
difficult at first, as the eye will focus itself on a certain
portion of the object and see only that portion, while the
other portion remains obscured or blurred. As soon as
the mind takes into consideration the shade or shape of some
other portion, the eye will wander to that portion and focus
clearly on it. These movements and changes of the eye
and mind follow one another in such rapid succession that
an impression is created of having seen the entire object
in detail at one glance, where, as a matter of fact, many
glances have been necessary.

DRAWING FROM CAST

This appearance must be avoided to a certain extent
in rendering- the work, as the finished drawing is likely
to look more like a microscopic representation than an art
study. The aim of the artist should be, not to draw every
detail with the most minute accuracy but to give strength
of character to the whole rendering, by broad masses of
shadow representative of each part, as though the eye were
focused on but one part and received the impression of light
and shade from the other precisely as it does in nature.

Thus, it is of the ut-
most importance that
the masses of shadow
and high light should
be considered first, and
the detail worked out
afterwards. The object
should be blocked out as
a whole and each section
worked up to the desired
degree of finish after-
wards. The general
form and mass of an
object, as well as its
relative light-and-shade
values, can be deter-
mined to a certain ex-
tent by partially closing
the eyes and observing,
by means of the dim
light that is permitted to penetrate between the lids, the
object that is being drawn. In this way the subject will
divide itself into two masses of light and shade without
intermediate values, and the rendering of these two masses
should form the first block form of the subject.

In some instances this massing will be all that is required,
while in others certain details must be worked up more fully.
For example, Fig. 4 is a rendering of a plaster cast wherein
nothing has been detailed or outlined, but the shadows

Fig. 4

$6 DRAWING FROM CAST 7

simply laid in solid black. The mind is subtle and readily
grasps the idea of what is intended and completes the
appearance that is required. Practice rendering the objects
in two values before an attempt is made to even up the
surface and blend one value into another. The artist sees
effects — not objects.

6. Half Tone. — So far, light and shade have been dealt
with simply as two elements in rendering, and while it is
possible to consider a great multitude of values between
absolute black and perfect white, the rendering of these
values may be reduced to a very few simple tones. The
first of these tones to be considered is midway between
black and white, and may be termed lialf tone, although in
general criticism of drawings, a half tone is any tone midway
between the darkest and the lightest tone of the subject.
In Fig. 1, the surface b is a half tone, as it is half way
between a and c.

Where an object is rendered in three tones, as is oftentimes
the case, the half tone is practically its true color, whether
the object is rendered in color or simply in light and shade.
A light-and-shade value of the color of the object is rendered
in half tone, as the high light is reduced in value owing to
its brilliant illumination and the shadow is increased in value
owing to its lack of illumination. Therefore, as in Fig. 1,
if it is desired to represent a cube or other solid whose
color is a gray, that color is indicated on the side b, and
the depth of that color determines the depth of the deepest
shade c. If the cube is a very light gray, then that tint can
be indicated at b, and the deepest shadow would be but a
few shades darker on c. If the cube should be a very dark
gray, the depth of tone would be indicated on />, and the
deepest shadow at c would probably approximate nearly
to black.

7. Reflected light is that which is often seen on the
shaded portion of an object owing to the fact that surround-
ing objects reflected their light on it. In rendering a
drawing, reflected light is considered far less important

DRAWING FROM CAST

§6

than the direct light and must never tend to confusion or
exaggeration in the conditions represented. It must always
be considered much lower in tone than the direct light, and
may in many cases be omitted entirely, particularly in light-
and-shade rendering.

Reflected light is of more importance in color work, as,
for instance, in the case of a blue polished vase standing

Fig. 5

on a yellow table cover. The high light in the blue vase
will appear to the eye as white, whereas, the high light
from the reflected table cloth will appear to the eye as
green, owing to the commingling of the colors of the vase
and the table cloth. This representation of reflected light
in color is necessary in order to give an appearance of
reality to a drawing, but is of much less importance in

§6 DRAWING FROM CAST 9

light-and-shade rendering, as color forms so small a part of
the consideration.

8. Shadow is a term applied to the absence of or the
result of interference with light through the interception of
some opaque object. In Fig. 5, a pyramid is illuminated on
the right side; its back a is in shade, and it casts a shadow
on the ground b, inasmuch as the light is intercepted owing
to the opacity of the pyramid. The part of the shadow
nearest the side of the object that casts it, is usually darker
than the shaded side of the object; that is, the part of the
shadow b next to the pyramid is darker than the side of
the pyramid a.

Shadow differs from shade, inasmuch as it has a definite
shape or form dependent on and somewhat resembling the
form of the object that casts it. Thus, the shadow b of the
pyramid has the form of a pyramid, and the shadow of a
man in full sunlight would have somewhat the form of
a man. Shade, however, is indefinite and simply extends
over a surface in an arbitrary way on the side of that stir-'
face turned from the light.

9. In rendering a drawing, the only way to secure the
true light, shade, and half-tone values is to reserve the pure
white of the paper on which the drawing is rendered to
represent the high lights, and then render the rest of the
object in an even tint for the half tone. Over the half tone
the deepest shadow may be worked, and the result is the
rendering of the object in three tones. The finishing of
the drawing, including the transition of deepest shade into
half tone and half tone into high light, is accomplished by
the softening of the edges on curved surfaces where one
shade runs into another.

It is evident from the preceding statement that before
attempting to make a shaded drawing, the student must be
familiar with outline drawing. He must not only be able
to outline his object clearly, but must also be able to outline
the high lights on that object, and the half tones. This
being done, the blending of one into the other is all that is

10 DRAWING FROM CAST §6

necessary to produce that soft effect so characteristic of
crayon and pencil drawing.

While outline of the high lights and shades is necessary,
the student must not forget the statement heretofore made —
that there is no such thing as outline in nature — and he
must destroy this outline between high lights and shadows
by blending one into the other through subtle transitions
that cannot be detected by the eye. The only exception to
this principle is in rendering some shiny object, as in Fig. 2,
where the high light is sharply profiled against the half
tone, thereby indicating the texture of the polished material
that reflects it.

The outline is used as a guide to the hand and is neces-
sary as a framework around which to build our shades in
the same manner that a framework is necessary for a house
in order to support the detail. Ruskin, the great art critic,
says in his writings: "A good artist habitually sees masses,
not edges, and if one can put on paper patches of color or
shade of exactly the same size, shape, and gradation as
those on the object he is representing, he will produce an
exact portraiture of the object itself." The principal neces-
sity for an outline is to prevent one from losing his way and
overdoing detail as he applies the shadows. The outline is
a guide to the eye and hand. Again, in this connection
Ruskin says: "The power of shading depends upon the
lightness of the hand and the keenness of the sight."

MEASUREMENT AND PROPORTION

10. In making a drawing of any object it is necessary to
use some system of measurement by which various details
of the object can be properly proportioned, one to another.
A simple solid, such as a sphere or a cube, is easy to
render without material reference to any system of pro-
portion, inasmuch as the eye is sufficiently familiar with
such forms to proportion them correctly without other aid.
But with complicated figures, such as parts of the human
body, it is necessary to have a system by which they can

•

"VJ

12 DRAWING FROM CAST §6

be proportioned so that the eye can become trained to
realize what relative size one detail should be in comparison
with another.

The simplest method of calculating these proportions is
by means of pencil measurement. In Fig. 6 is shown a cone,
the height of which c d can be determined by holding the
pencil at arm's length, as shown, and closing one eye. The
end of the pencil is then held over the point of the cone c,
and the thumb moved until it marks the base of the cone
at d at the same time. The distance ef on the pencil then
gives a standard of measurement for the height of the cone
c d, and on the lower edge of the drawing paper one can
evenly lay off this height as a line shown at a b, Fig. 7 (a),
and mark this line "height."

The width of the cone can then be measured by holding
the pencil horizontally, as shown in Fig. 8, keeping the point
of the pencil on the side of the cone a and marking the
width of it with the thumb at b. The distance g h thus
marked off on the pencil in Fig. 8 will determine the width
of the cone, and a line cd, Fig. 7 (a), can be drawn by the
side of the line a b as the standard of width.

These lines form standards of measurement from which a
cone of any size may be constructed in proper proportion to
the original. In making these measurements it is necessary
that one sit as nearly as possible in the same position when
taking each measurement, and that the arm be extended full
length in order that the distance from the eye to the pencil
may be uniform; otherwise, inaccurate proportions will be
given and a poorly proportioned drawing will be the result.
The pencil should also be held at right angles to the line
of sight, not slanting either perpendicularly or horizontally,
as an inclination of the pencil toward the object would invari-
ably render the proportion longer than it should be.

The relative proportion of these two lines, as shown in
Fig. 7, will give the relative proportions on which to draw the
cone. In this case it will be observed that the width cd is
two-thirds of the height ab, and a drawing of any proportions
can be laid off wherein the width of the cone at the base is

DRAWING FROM CAST

§6 DRAWING FROxM CAST 15

made two-thirds of its height. This process, it will be seen,
is a very simple one when there are but two measurements,
but it may be just as readily accomplished where there are
more measurements, provided sufficient care be taken in
gauging them exactly and laying them off proportionately
to one another.

11. In drawing the cube in Fig. 9, measure the height
ag from the lowest portion to the highest portion, laying
off this height as shown at ag, Fig. 7 (b). Then measure
the width from c to e and lay this off at ce, Fig. 7 (/>), and
as the line a b is directly in front of the eye, this measure-
ment can be laid off at a b, Fig. 7 (b). We have three general
proportions now on which to construct our cube.

The width of the cube being ,7

greater than the height, it is
best to take this as a standard
of proportion, and it is foand
by comparison that the height
is four-fifths of the greatest
width, and that the height of
the nearest line a b is three-
fifths of the greatest width.
We then have the proportions
of 3 for the height in front;
4 for the greatest height, that is, from a to g; and 5 for the
greatest width, from d to / or from c to e. If we assume the
width to be laid off at 5 inches, a base line // m may be laid
out, 5 inches in length; and at its center the line a b may be
laid off, 3 inches, while the point a' should be located 4 inches
over a. The sides ei and cd should then be judged by the
pencil and laid out in proper proportion, and the whole figure
completed by connecting up the points so located.

The angles formed at a, b, and /maybe judged approxi-
mately by the eye in most cases, but where it is necessary
to get them exact, they may be carefully measured by means
of two pencils held in the hand, as shown in Fig. 10, and so
separated that each pencil corresponds with one of the lines

§6

DRAWING FROM CAST

meeting to form the angle; that is, the pencil a b, Fig. 10,
can be held at arm's length so that it is parallel with the
line a b, Fig. 9, and the pencil c d, Fig. 10, at the same time
maintained parallel to the line a f, Fig. 9. In this way the
angles may be laid off exactly, and a perfect outline drawing
of the cube as it appears to the eye from a given position
can thus be rendered.

If the position of the cube is changed so that its angle
is not directly in front of the eye but to the right of it, as
shown in Fig. 11, the same method may be used. The entire
height from the base line h in
to the highest corner,^ may be
measured; also, the height of
line a b, and the width from
c to e laid out, while the angles
— measured in pencil — may
be plotted in their proper
places.

Practice frequently these
simple forms until capable of
making the measurements
with exactness; in drawing
the figures from the measurements, vary the proportions,
making them smaller and larger than the dimensions thus
measured, in order to train the eye and hand to work
together. Or, in other words, lay off the measurements
as shown in Fig. 7, and vary them, making a cone twice
the size of these measurements, another one half the size,
and another one of some other proportion, bearing in mind
that the width is two-thirds the height or whatever else
may be found through the pencil measurement in actual
practice.

18 DRAWING FROM CAST §6

MAKING THE DRAWING

12. In drawing from plaster casts, bear in mind that
there is something more to accomplish than the mere repre-
sentation on paper of the object. The drawing of these
simple forms is absolutely necessary in order to train the
eye and hand to work together and at the same time accustom
the eye to the natural proportions of one part to another.
It thus forms a stepping stone toward drawing from life or
drawing from nature, but it has this advantage: the cast is
always motionless, while the human figure posed for drawing
is subject to changes of position as fatigue sets in, and lack
of familiarity with the proportions of the parts is likely to
render the drawing of one portion of the body as it appeared
at the commencement of the pose and other portions as they
appeared after the figure has sagged from weariness.

Constant drawing from cast is therefore necessary in
order to become familiar with the relative appearances of the
different parts of the figure, and to judge, when working from
the human figure, whether each detail is rendered in its proper
relation to the several other details. It is not within the
province of this Section to explain how this result may be
best effected in life drawing, as that will be taken up in
Drawing From flic Human Figure. This Section will be
devoted to the proper eye measurement and rendering of
various portions of the cast, in order that it may be properly
depicted on paper or canvas.

In cast drawing, one always works in monochrome or
simple light and shade, and the models are usually details
or parts of the human body relieved of all surface peculiari-
ties, such as the texture of the skin, wrinkles, and other
characteristics of individual cases. The whole broad out-
line is shown with a smoothness that is standard in all cases;
it may be varied when the time comes to make it character-
istic of the individual. The same cast may be hung in
different positions, giving different effects of light and shade,
foreshortening, etc., that will be of great advantage when
the more important work of life study is commenced.

§6 DRAWING FROM CAST 19

Study from the cast may be divided into three parts: the
drawing of the whole figure, the drawing of different
parts of the figure, and the drawing of the head. These
should be studied alternately, in order that their relative
importance may be appreciated. The whole figure must be
studied for its action, the axial directions of its main lines,
its proportion, its construction, etc. The fragment or indi-
vidual member should be studied in order to become familiar
with details on a large scale, and to emphasize the study of
construction, and also to learn the effects of foreshortening,
the direction of various planes, and the character of the
subtle contours. The head should be specifically studied to
get its general structure, strong facial lines and features,
and characteristics of execution that in various individuals
give expression and individuality.

Give considerable attention to the freehand drawing of
straight lines, and be able to render vertical, horizontal, and
oblique lines with a fair degree of accuracy and truth of
direction; also be able to judge by the eye the characteris-
tics of certain curves and represent these curves approxi-
mately correct on the paper. Outside of the actual drawing
of models and casts, too much attention cannot be given
these simple details.

13. If a drawing does not appear satisfactory when com-
pleted, careful study should be given to the object from
which it is drawn, in order to discern, if possible, wherein
the error lies. All angles should be carefully tested by means
of two pencils, as described in Art. 11. The lengths of all
lines should be checked by means of pencil measurement,
and an endeavor made to even up any irregularities that may
appear. It will be frequently found, in thus checking the
drawing, that the pencil measurements do not agree entirely
with those that were made first. This will probably be due
to the fact that the position has been changed somewhat,
and owing to the eye approaching nearer or receding farther
from the figure, the measurements will be larger or smaller
than those first taken. In such cases, for the purpose of

20 DRAWING FROM CAST §6

checking, it is best to change the position until the length
of line as first laid off as a standard of measurement will
agree exactly with the checking measurement for the same
dimension. Then, any variation that is found with the
other measurements can be corrected with some degree of
satisfaction.

ARRANGEMENT OF LIGHT

14. For practice in drawing from any object, the arrange-
ment of the light is of vast importance. Where it is possi-
ble, a north window gives the best light, as the sun's rays
seldom enter it, and an even diffusion or spreading of the
illumination is thus effected, causing soft shadows and lack
of harshness. Where a north light is not available, the
model should be placed away from the direct rays of the sun
and the window shades in the room so drawn that the sun's
rays are excluded.

In any case, the cast should be placed so that the light
falls on it from the student's left and somewhat above his
head. In an ordinary room this may be accomplished by
hanging the cast near a window, and closing the lower
portion of the window so that the illumination comes from
above only. Any other light that would tend to illuminate
the right-hand side of the object should be extinguished or
cut off in order to prevent confusion in the shadows. It is
most essential that the line where the shade ends and the
high light begins should be seen correctly, and this can be
studied satisfactorily only when the light falls from one
direction.

MATERIALS

15. For practice in drawing from cast, use charcoal
paper fastened to a drawing board with two or more thumb-
tacks. The board may be placed on an easel, or it may be
held in the lap and allowed to rest against the back of a
chair or a table. A soft rubber eraser may be used to
remove pencil marks if the object is drawn in lead pencil,
but a piece of stale bread is far preferable where the drawing

§6 DRAWING FROM CAST 21

is rendered in soft crayon or charcoal. After the drawing is
entirely finished, it is necessary to spray over it a thin
varnish, usually called fixative, in order to prevent the
details from rubbing or smudging and thereby destroying
the neatness of effect. The fixative is spread on the draw-
ings by means of a sprayer, one end of which is inserted in
the fixative bottle and the other held between the lips. By
blowing through it, at a distance of about 18 inches to 2 feet
from the drawing, an even spray of the varnish is spread
entirely over the surface. Very little fixative is required
for this purpose, an excess giving a sticky and glossy effect
to the paper.

For practice work, make the drawings as large as possible,
as when the eye is once trained to do work on a large scale,
it is a simple matter to execute the same from memory
on a small scale. Artists and illustrators in studying from
the human figure invariably make their studies as large
and as broad as possible, but when they sketch compositions
in order to arrange the various details before the picture
or illustration is started, they sketch their figures from
memory on a very small scale and arrange them relatively
to one another about as they would like to have them
appear in the finished drawing. Knowledge sufficient to
carry out the broad details renders the making of composi-
tion sketches a comparatively simple matter, and it is safe
to feel that drawing on a large scale is conducive to freedom
and accuracy.

DRAWING PLATE, ENTITLED: GEOMETRICAL

SOLIDS

16. Having practiced the drawing of simple forms, taking
the measurements thereof by means of the pencil extended
at arm's length, now devote some time to the shading
of surfaces before attempting to render parts of the human
figure in a drawing. Shading on drawings is rendered
in pencil and crayon work by means of a series of parallel
lines evenly spaced at first bi1*: afterwards blended together.

DRAWING FROM CAST

§6

^//yy/'/Zyy/////* tint without apparent lines ex
f?yjf/////y/Y//J/ those formed by the tooth" of

TyZ/sS/S/S/sS/S. , .■_ it.:- ,o t,\

V,.-*' sy-'ys- './J*/-'.-:' s :'\r/f

'//'//j^/'/./z/s/y/A

(a)

For practice, draw a square about 2 inches on each side,
and then render the surface of same, by means of parallel
lines, in even monotone, as shown in Fig. 12 (a). Being
able to secure a uniform shade in this
manner, attempt spacing the lines
/s more closely so as to produce an even

except
>f the
paper, as shown in Fig. 12 (/>). By
using more pressure and a greater
number of lines on one side, the tint
can be graded until an effect similar to
that shown in Fig. 12 {c) is obtained.
In doing this, the whole square is
shaded over in the lightest tone first,
and then the darkest tone is applied
corner. The
ided, gradually
re with which
blends softly
into the lighter tone without any line
of demarcation. Generally speaking,
but three degrees of shading are
made use of in the first drawing —
the deepest shade, half tone, and
white. These are then blended one
into the other where necessary, in
order to produce intermediate grada-
tions.

Oftentimes shadows stand out
very prominently and in sharp con-
trast with a very light surface. Other
times they will blend into a dark
shade so that their edges can be
hardly discerned. Owing to the influ-
ences of reflected light, shadows sometimes start in a very
dark tone and gradually become paler until they softly blend
into the lig-htest tone of the drawing:. The student must be

§6 DRAWING FROM CAST 23

prepared to portray any of these conditions that occur in his
work, and, therefore, such practice as the blending of dark into
light, as shown in Fig. 12 (c) , is of the greatest importance.

17. Execute on this drawing plate four figures, drawing
the border line 13 inches by 17 inches, as before; 6 inches
above the lower border draw a horizontal line across the
plate and then a vertical line through the center, dividing
the plate into four rectangles. Each of these rectangles
will contain one of the four geometrical solids that consti-
tute the drawings on this plate. The first figure on the
drawing plate will be a reproduction of Fig. 13. This figure
need not be copied exactly; it would be better to take a
cube or square box of some kind, stand it on a table 6 or
8 feet distant, and render the cube with its shadow just as
the light falls on it and in accordance with the following
directions as to shading.

In this case, make the side of the cube nearest the eye
about 3 inches in height, and the total width from c to c about
4 inches. Therefore, the height will be three-fourths the
greatest width. The rectangular rod leaning against the cube
is in reality about 5 or 6 inches in length, although it appears
much smaller owing to its position in the drawing. The
lines a c and b d at the top and bottom of the cube converge
toward a vanishing point as they recede from the eye, and
the line ef converges toward ac as it vanishes toward the
same point. The lines c /, at, and bg converge and vanish
in another point toward the left. The straight rod leaning
against the cube strikes its upper edge at about the center,
and the shadows cast by it from // to k and / to in vanish
toward the same point as the lines ac\ b d, etc. The shadow
against the side of the cube km, however, is not parallel
with the side a b. but inclines slightly toward />, as the source
of light is evidently to the left of the rod.

Having drawn the cube lightly in outline, proceed to shade
the surface abge an even tone representing the high light.
This tone will also exist on the front edge of the rod. The
rendering of this tone will require a very light touch of

DRAWING FROM CAST

§6

§6 DRAWING FROM CAST 25

the crayon, and must be done very slowly and carefully in
order to secure a uniform tint. The dark side abed may
then be rendered in the darkest tone intended to be used on
the drawing. It should not be perfectly black, however, as
this gives a heavy, opaque appearance to the object and
destroys the transparency of its shadow. The tone on this
side, it will be observed, is lighter toward the bottom than
at the top, and it will be necessary to lay the whole side in
the lighter tone first and then gradually darken it in order to
produce the desired effect. The shadow may then be drawn
in as shown, observing that next to the cube, its shadow, as
cast on the table, is considerably darker than toward the
edges. The shadow of the rod, being against the cube, is
about the same tone as the shadow of the cube itself where
this shadow starts from the points of contact, that is, at
/ and h, but the shadow of the rod lightens somewhat as it
extends toward ;;/ and k.

Having completed this drawing and indicated the back-
ground lightly, as shown, protect the other three rectangles
on the drawing plate that are subsequently to contain draw-
ings, and then spray the finished drawing with the atomizer
and fixative before attempting to execute the others. In this
way much trouble will be avoided through the hands coming
in contact with the unfixed drawing, thereby smudging it
and rendering it necessary, possibly, to be redrawn.

18. In the next rectangle to the right of the one con-
taining the cube, render a drawing of a six-sided prism
standing on end, Fig. 14. In this prism, the side a b is about
5 inches long, and the lines a d and b c, though parallel in
reality, vanish toward some point to the right. Each other
pair of parallel lines also vanish toward some point, and
although this point may be very remote, it is important to bear
in mind and see that the lines converge slightly in order to
prevent a distorted appearance in the rendering. The side
abfe possesses the lightest tone and should be rendered
similar to the side a b g e in the previous figure. The dark
side dghc should then be rendered in the darkest tone, being

DRAWING FROM CAST

careful to grade the tone from top to bottom as before. The
shadow of the prism in this instance extends across the table
to the wall and upwards on the wall. Observe that the line of

-££..

:•'- ■■■: •!■•. •••',7.. ";;•,;;; '.'

:: • ,~.^r}; ,■ ,

■';.;

's£r*;^; ■"■'•' —

•?."''■

demarcation between the back of the prism and the shadow
is not all distinct, the shadow on the wall being nearly the
same tone as the shade on the side of the prism. The lower
part of the prism, all around, is a trifle lighter in shade than

§6

DRAWING FROM CAST

)

-7

— .

,,,.—

<7>

28 DRAWING FROM CAST §6

the upper part, owing to the reflected light from the table,
while the table itself possesses a tone equal to the upper part
of the side a b f e. The highest light on the prism is on the
hexagon forming its top, and this should be left white, or
tinted only a shade darker than the drawing paper itself.

19. Having finished and sprayed this drawing with
fixative, proceed to the drawing of the cylinder shown in
Fig. 15. This should be placed in the lower left-hand rect-
angle of the drawing plate. This cylinder is about 5 inches
in height, the ellipse forming its upper side being about
3 inches along its greater axis. The cylinder stands on a
block about 5 inches square and I inch thick, the sides of the
block vanishing quite perceptibly as they recede from the
eye. The lightest tones on this drawing exist on the table
and block to the left of the cylinder and the left-hand side
and top of the cylinder itself.

20. In rendering the shade values on this cylindrical
surface, first consider it, similar to the hexagon, as a figure
with a number of plain surfaces or sides. The figure should
first be divided into a number of vertical rectangles, as
shown in Fig. 16. If the surface is thus divided into nine
rectangles, as shown, and 3 is considered the darkest, then
the darkest tone should be laid on 3, and 9 should be shaded
to correspond with the tone of the top of the cylinder. 7 will
then be the high light, and the other tones will be intermedi-
ate between 7 and 3. When these tones have been estab-
lished, the harsh line defining them should be gradually
blended off from each dark tone into the next lighter one,
until an even curved surface similar to that shown in
Fig. 15 is presented.

The shadow of the cylinder and of the block on which it
stands is considerably darker than the darkest part of the
cylinder, but the front edge of the block that is shown in
shade is equal in value to about point ~> of the cylinder.
Observe, in rendering this, as in other cases, that the shade
on the cylinder becomes perceptibly lighter toward the bot-
tom, where it contrasts with the dark shadow.

§6

DRAWING FROM CAST

111

DRAWING FROM CAST

§6

21. After completing this drawing- satisfactorily, spray
it carefully to preserve it, and proceed with the last figure
on the plate, shown in Fig. 17. The base of this cone is
about 3] inches in diameter and the height on the axis is

about 4 or 4a inches from a to b. A hexagonal pyramid
similar to that shown in Fig. 14 stands behind the cone and
receives part of the shadow cast by it. The base of this
cone should be divided in a similar manner to the top of the
cylinder in Fig. 16, and lines drawn from these divisions to

§6 DRAWING FROM CAST 31

the apex b, as shown in Fig. 18. Fach of the small triangles
so formed should then be shaded as in the case of Fig. 16,
the darkest being at 3 and the lightest at 7. Take particular
notice how the shadow grades from the apex of the cone
toward the base, so that in the finished drawing, Fig. 17,
sections i, 2, and 3 of the base are nearly of the same tone,
while at the top the tone grades off rapidly to the left and
is much darker in section 1 than at the bottom. The con-
trast of the light side of the prism against the darkest part
of the cone is very effective in this case, and should be
carefully studied.

The shadow cast by the cone is about as dark as the
darkest part of the cone, but the shadow cast by the end
of the prism, being more distant, is not rendered in as dark
a tone as the shadow cast by the cone, as this rendering
gives the effect of perspective. The shadow cast by the
prism and the darkest part of the end of the prism are
about the same tone, but the shadow is graded toward the
bottom, so that the end of the prism against the end of the
shadow is lighter than the shadow itself, thus establishing
its outline.

Having completed these figures according to instructions,
and fixed them satisfactorily with the sprayer, the student
should enter his name and class letter and number in the
lower right-hand corner and the date in the lower left-hand
corner of the plate, as usual, and send same to the Schools
for criticism.

DRAWING PLATE, TITLE: OUTLINES OF
FEATURES

22. This drawing plate will be devoted to the outlining
in crayon of three views of the mouth and eye, drawn to a
large scale in order to become familiar with the characteris-
tics of these features before attempting to draw them in
connection with other parts of the face. The drawing plate
;vill be divided through the middle by a line 6 inches above
the lower border, as before, and divided horizontally into

DRAWING FROM CAST

§6

three equal parts through which vertical lines will be drawn,
converting the drawing plate into six rectangles within which
each feature will be drawn.

Fig. 19 is a full front view of the lips drawn in straight,
bold lines to show the characteristics of the mouth in out-
line. Draw in the upper left-hand rectangle three vertical
lines about li inches apart, as. shown in Fig. 19, and with
these as guides to locate the center and corner of the lips,
draw, in a few bold lines, the front view of the mouth, as
indicated. The upper outline of the upper lip forms a

complete bow shape, but particular care must be given to
its upturn at the corners in order to prevent a drooping
expression; the short lines marking the ends of this feature,
at right angles to the upturned portion, show where the
indentations occur in the cheeks. The line between the
upper and lower lip dips in the center, as does the upper
line, but not to so great an extent, and the lines connecting
this dip with the upturned corners are nearly horizontal.
The outline of the lower lip should be very lightly indicated,
as this is not so prominent as the other lines. Above the

§6

DRAWING FROM CAST

center of the lip are two lines indicating the indentations of
the upper lip directly under the nose, and below the lower
lip are lines indicating the point of projection of the chin.
Do not finish this drawing any more than is shown in
Fig. 19.

To the right of this on the drawing plate, draw a profile
view of the lip, as shown in Fig. 20. A light line inclined
slightly toward the left should first be drawn as a guide.
The curve from the under side of the nose to the top of
the lip touches this line, as does also
the line of the chin, and it will be \
observed that the line stopping the
corner of the mouth inclines toward
this construction line at the top.

In the upper right-hand rectangle
of the drawing plate a three-quarter
view of the mouth is shown, as in
Fig. 21. Here three nearly vertical
lines are drawn, two of them li inches
apart and the other i inch to the right.
It will be observed that the left-hand
half of the lips in this drawing are
longer in proportion than those in
Fig. 19, because, viewed in this posi-
tion, one-half of the lips are seen at
their greatest length and are not
foreshortened by the curves of the \

face as they are in Figs. 19 and 20.

J Fig. 20

The general curves of the lips from

the center to the side line are very much the same as in
Fig. 19, although in Fig. 21 they are more extended on the
left side and more contracted on the right, the vertical dis-
tance between the lines at their several points being prac-
tically the same in both cases.

23. In Fig. 22 is shown a full front view of the eye and
brow, and this should be drawn in the lower left-hand rect-
angle of the drawing plate. Three vertical lines are drawn

DRAWING FROM CAST

§6

to act as guides, the two outside ones being 2 inches apart,
and the middle one li inches to the right of the first. These
lines mark the extreme visible portion of the eyeball and
the center of the pupil. Observe that the outlines of the
upper lid are nearly parallel and straight across the pupil,
but droop rapidly toward each side, and that the line of the
lower lid is not nearly so curved as that of the upper lid.
The two corners of the eye, however, are practically opposite
each other, and the under side of the brow is about the

same distance above
the under side of the
upper lid that the
upper lid is above
the lower lid. The
iris does not extend
the full depth of the
opening, and the
pupil instead of being
in the center of the
iris is slightly above.
In Fig. 23 is a draw-
ing of a profile of the
eye. A guide line
should be drawn in
about the same direc-
tion as the guide line
was drawn in Fig. 20,
to get the inclination
of the prominent parts of the feature in this position. The
line of the lid inclines sharply downwards, almost straight, at
an angle somewhat less than 45°. The outer edge of the lid
crosses the guide line and the guide line passes through the
angle of the eyebrow. The triangle between the pupil and
the corner of the eye is somewhat fuller than in Fig. 22,
inasmuch as this detail is seen flatter before the eye without
foreshortening, as was the case in Fig. 21 with the mouth.
Take particular notice of the fulness immediately under the
eye, where it extends to the left of the guide line nearly

Fig. 21

§6

DRAWING FROM CAST

as much as the lid itself, and the lower portion of the eye
curving up to meet the upper lid intersects with it at nearly
a right angle, although somewhat more acute.

In Fig. 24 a three-quarter view of the eye is shown and
should be drawn in the lower right-hand rectangle of the draw-
ing plate. The heights remain the same as in Fig. 22, but
the lines passing through the corners of the eye are only

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li inches apart owing to the foreshortening of the feature in
this position, while the line passing through the pupil is
1 inch to the right of the first line. Care should be taken to
see that the different points of prominence in the three views
of the eye should be on the same horizontal line, as the
change of position would not affect any vertical measure-
ments. Note also, in both Figs. 22 and 24, that the right-
hand corner of the eye does not close completely between

DRAWING FROM CAST

the upper and the lower lids, as this is the side next to the
nose and contains the little tear gland that in nature prevents
these two details from closing together as tightly as the
outer corner of the eye.

It is very important to practice these simple outline draw-
ings repeatedly and to observe in persons the character-
istics that have been herein pointed out. The slightest

Fie. 23

change in the direction or curvature of any line of these
features will change the entire expression of the feature
itself and sometimes of the whole face in which it is situ-
ated. On the eye and the mouth depend all changes of
expression that one is capable of giving t3 the human
countenance, except a few minor expressions on which the
nose is dependent. Much time devoted to these exercises

§6

DRAWING FROM CAST

will be of infinite value in proceeding- with the more com-
plicated studies.

When these drawings are completed, the student should
insert the title above and the date, name, and class letter
and number below the drawing plate, as usual, and then
spray the entire drawing with fixative.

Fig. 24

DRAWING PLATE, TITLE: BLOCK FORM OF HEAD

24. Now make three drawings from the cast showing
the block form of the head in the three views: full face,
profile, and three-quarter. These three drawings should be
made after the drawing plate has been divided into three
vertical panels with light pencil lines, in the center of which
should be located the block drawing in each of the three posi-
tions. This drawing should be executed directly from the
cast, but reference to the previous drawing plate in order to

38 DRAWING FROM CAST S6

get characteristic details of the eye and mouth in the three
positions, will help greatly in laying out these forms.

Hang the cast in a good light so that the shadows fall
below and toward the right side. If it is hung near a window,
it is best to shade the lower part of the window slightly and
place the drawing table with the window to the left and the
cast in front. The cast should be not more than (3 or S feet
away, so that when the arm is extended to get the pencil
measurements heretofore spoken of, the full length of the
head from the crown to the chin will measure approximately
31 inches. The width at its widest portion will then be about
2f inches. These measurements should then be doubled so
that the head on the drawing plate will by pencil measure-
ment be about 7 inches high. Determine these proportions
by pencil measurements and do not adhere to the measure-
ments here given unless the proportions by pencil measure-
ment vary so greatly that the block drawings cannot be
contained within the panels on the drawing plate. Should
this be the case, change the position of the drawing table
somewhat and move farther away, so that the width of the
head may be drawn within the limits suggested.

Although all proportions should be laid off by pencil
measurement, it is well that the general proportions of the
features to the rest of the face should be understood. In
the first place, the average head may be considered as one-
eighth the height of the body in the male figure, and one-
seventh the height of the body in the female figure, and from
the chin to the roots of the hair is four-fifths the height of
the entire head. Therefore, in the present case, should the
drawing of the entire head be 7 inches in height, it will be
5| inches from the chin to the roots of the hair. The face
from the roots of the hair to the chin may be divided approx-
imately into three equal parts, the uppermost marking the
lines of the eyebrows, the next the end of the nose, and the
last the chin. The entire width of the head may be divided
into five equal parts, each part being equal to the width of
one of the eyes, and the space between the eyes, and the
spaces on each side, each being equal to the width of the eye.

§6

DRAWING FROM CAST

25. Now proceed to lay in the general lines of this block
form of head in full front view, as shown in Fig. 25. The
general outline given to the eyes is smaller, but in the same

Fig.

proportion to that explained in connection with Fig. 22, the
eyebrow being slightly flattened and more angular toward the
outside edges in the block form than in the free rendering

DRAWING FROM CAST

§6

shown in Fig. 22. The indentation from the line of the
eyebrows to the top of the nose casts a small shadow, and
this should be carefully outlined, while two nearly straight

lines mark the sides of the nose down the center of the face.
The end of the nose is broader than the middle, or bridge,
and the two side lobes, where the nose itself enters the

DRAWING FROM CAST

cheeks, extend on each side and mark the broadest part of
the nose. The mouth should then be outlined as in Fig. 19,
care being taken that it is properly proportioned, as can be
determined by pencil measurement; and the line under the

lower lip marking the indentation of the chin so located that
it would form, if continued, a slightly flattened circle where
it joins the under curve of the chin.

By closing the eyes slightly, so that the cast can be
observed between the lashes, a great contrast between the

DRAWING FROM CAST

§6

lights and shades of the cast will be observed, and the lines
of the shadows caused by the various features can be out-
lined on the drawing plate, as shown in Fig. 25, and the
shaded surfaces rendered as shown in Fig. 26, although they
may appear to be more varied, as shown in Fig. 27. How-
ever, it is better at present to render all values in an even
tone and leave the gradation of tones until later. If the
cast is hung somewhat above the eye, the line marking the
roots of the hair will be almost straight, but if nearly on a
level with the eye, this line will curve upwards. Slightly
curved lines mark the hair on the sides where it rounds
down to the tops of the ears. The ear extends from the line
of the eye to the bottom of the nose, and in full
front view appears somewhat as shown in Fig. 28.
In shading the various flat surfaces of which this
cast is composed, it is important that an even
tint should represent each part of them. Soft-
ness and detail are not desired in this drawing,
ClfPlf f I as a simPle block representation is all that is
required.

When this figure has been rendered satisfacto-
rily and the separate features have been studied
to see that they are in proper proportion to the
cast and possess all the individual characteristics
pointed out for the rendering of the previous
drawing plate, carefully cover the other two
panels of this plate and spray the finished drawing before
taking up the rendering of the second figure on the plate,
which represents the block cast in profile.

Light horizontal lines may be drawn from the top of the
finished figure across the other two panels of the plate to
locate thereon the main features, as the turning of the cast
in profile will not change or foreshorten the apparent length
of these features. When the cast is so turned, it will face
the window or source of light, and the front of the face will
appear, when the eyes are partially closed, brilliantly illu-
minated, while the sides of the cheek, temple, and nose will
be in partial shade.

Fig. 28

Fig. 29

44 DRAWING FROM CAST §6

26. In this drawing of the cast, a line should be drawn
approximately representing the angle of the forehead, as
shown in Fig. 29, and the relation of the line of the nose to
this construction line should be carefully studied. Another
line from the end of the nose, touching the chin, should be
carefully drawn, the angle being studied from the cast itself.
The outline of the profile should now be carefully sketched
and the edges of the shadows indicated thereon, while the eye
and mouth are carefully rendered in accordance with the
suggestions made in the drawing of Figs. 20 and 23. The
ear in this drawing will appear more as shown in Fig. 30,
but the back part and inside will be the only parts that
are in strong shadow. The line of the hair at the forehead

will curve upwards or be straight, as in the
previous case, according to the position of
the cast, but the line should curve out toward
the temple and fall slightly below the top
of the ear at the side.

The details of these figures will vary,
according to the position in which the origi-
nal cast is placed, and particular attention
should be given to the rendering of the
drawing from the cast itself rather than
from the illustrations in the text. Use the

Fig. 30

text illustrations as freely as may be neces-
sary, in order to get ideas of shape and position, but do not
copy illustrations in making drawings. The shaded drawing
of this profile view will appear as in Fig. 31, where the
planes are sharply outlined, but in Fig. 32 the planes are
not so clearly defined and the cast must be searched for
these lines of limitation. Endeavor to study from the cast
until the points that are emphasized in the text illustra-
tions are seen in the cast. When completed on the plate
this figure should be sprayed with the fixative in the same
manner as before.

27. The last figure is the most difficult of these three
examples, and will vary from the illustrations given in the

DRAWING FROM CAST

text in connection with it, according to the amount the cast
is turned from the last position. It should be hung, as

shown in Fig. 33, so that rather more of the full face than
the profile is seen, and the best guide is to turn it away

DRAWING FROM CAST

§6

from full face so that the corner of the farther side of the
mouth is not quite visible. This will bring- the mouth in the
cast, and one eye, in the position shown in Figs. 21 and 24.
The line of the forehead will not now be continuous down

the bridge of the nose, but will reach to the outer visible
extremity of one of the eyebrows, and a portion of the
eyelids of that eye will appear. All the features possess
the foreshortened or perspective aspect, and each should

DRAWING FROM CAST

be carefully studied before attempting to outline it on the
drawing sheet.

First draw the outlines of the planes of shadow, as shown
in Fig. o4, and then work in the even tones that represent
these planes.

28. In working on this figure, each feature should be
considered for awhile as a separate problem in itself. Some-
times it will be found desirable to make separate studies of
the eye, nose, and mouth before attempting to draw same in

DRAWING FROM CAST

§6

Fig. 34

§6

DRAWING FROM CAST

Fig. 35

50 DRAWING FROM CAST §6

the face, but when thoroughly understood do not hesitate to
draw them in with bold lines, making pencil measurements
wherever necessary to locate the features. Also study the
drawing from time to time, in comparison with the cast, to
see that the renderings approach as closely as possible to the
form. The outline of the shadows should not be attempted
until all the features are properly in place; then the shades
may be rendered lightly in an even tint, to finish the study.
There is nothing extremely difficult about the rendering of
this figure, if the two previous ones have been carefully
studied and executed.

More can be learned by studying the drawing for faults
and defects than by reading the text for specific instructions.
The student must learn to draw what he sees and to deter-
mine if his own drawing represents what he sees, or if
it does not, wherein it fails. Work slowly from point to
point, erasing as little as possible, keeping the crayon pencil
sharp enough so that the lines may be placed exactly where
required, but by no means as sharp as is required for ordi-
nary pencil drawing. Crayon rendering aims to secure broad
effects, and in the three drawings on this plate nothing should
be represented but a series of flat surfaces — planes — that
join each other to make up the characteristics of the human
face. Once understood as to their position and form, these
planes may be easily varied and softened into one another
so that the general softness and characteristics of the indi-
vidual face can be represented in close portrayal or as in
general portraiture, or as in exaggerated portrayal, as in
caricature work. It is far more important that the flat, plain
surfaces of the block forms be well understood, than that
the subtle curvatures of a finished form be attempted.

After executing the three figures and spraying the plate
to preserve them, the title, name, date, and class letter and
number should be entered in their usual places, and the plate
submitted for criticism and correction.

§6

DRAWING FROM CAST

DRAWING PLATE, TITLE: BLOCK HAND

29. With this plate the cast of the block hand should be
drawn in two positions — one hanging on the wall in the same

Fig. 36

light that the head was placed, as shown in Fig. 36, and the
other lying on the table some distance in front, in the

DRAWING FROM CAST

§6

position shown in Fig. 37. In the first of these positions the
form of the wrist should taper from where it joins the forearm
to its narrowest part and then gradually spread out to the
lines of the fingers. The hand should be hung about 6 feet

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in front of and above the eye, or so that the pencil measure-
ments indicate its full length as about 4i inches. These
measurements should be doubled in proportioning the hand
on the drawing plate, so as to make the hand about 9 inches
long.

§6

DRAWING FROM CAST

In drawing this block form, the whole should be treated as
a series of absolutely plain surfaces, as shown in Fig. 38, no
attempt being made to render the undulations or curvatures

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from one surface to another or to cast shadows any deeper
than those expressed by an even tone to show the planes at
different angles. In this position the left side of the hand

54 DRAWING FROM CAST §6

will be in full light, and the right side in full shadow. The
outline should be carefully sketched and a central line drawn
down the fore part of the arm to limit the intersection of the
two planes that form the surface of this arm. These planes,
it will be observed, divide into four, the intersections of
which form the knuckles at the fingers. The shading on
these planes should be expressed as deepening slightly in
tone as the back of the hand rounds away from the light.

The fingers are each divided into three planes: from the
knuckle to the middle joint, from the middle joint to the last
joint, and from this joint to the end of the finger. These
three planes will each be expressed by a different depth of
shade. Observe the slight taper of the fingers from the
knuckle joints to the ends, and also the tendency of the little
finger and the third finger to curve slightly toward the
center of the hand. The thumb in this position appears
nearly in profile, and its two visible joints mark the intersec-
tion of the planes that may tend somewhat toward a concave
surface in order to give emphasis to these joints. The left
side of the thumb will be in full light, while the side toward
the student will show a slight shadow.

The positions, outlines, and depths of these shade tones
can best be studied by closing the eyes slightly. 'The draw-
ing should be rendered in bold lines, without any attempt at
fine finish — simply as a study of the intersection of these
planes. When complete, the cast of the hand should be
removed from this position and laid on the table, about the
same distance in front that it was hanging, but below the
eye and turned so that a line from the eye would pass
across the right-hand corner of the forearm and over the
base of the thumb. This will give a foreshortened view
of the hand, somewhat as shown in Fig. 37.

30. The planes may now be represented, as in Fig. 39,
after outlining, by shading, as before, but the outlines of the
planes should be so light and delicate that after the shading
is placed they will practically disappear and the entire block
form be represented by a series of shadows. The outline

DRAWING FROM CAST

may be delicately represented on the left and lower side of
the wrist and forefinger, as there is no shadow there to dis-
tinguish these points from the other surface. The two
planes that intersect on the left side of the wrist may also be

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separated by a light line, as they are practically of one tone
and should not be represented by different tones.

The principal points to be observed with the block form
in this position are that the fingers do not extend from the
knuckles in exactly the same positions, the first and third

56 DRAWING FROM CAST §6

fingers being slightly higher than the middle finger and the
little finger being slightly higher in its middle joint than any
of the others. The cast may be placed so that the end of the
first finger becomes quite invisible behind the second finger,
or it may be turned so much that the full end of the first
finger is visible. These points should be carefully studied
from the cast, and not from the illustrations given in the text.
Having rendered this figure in its even tones, the title
should be placed above, and the name, date, and class letter
and number in their usual places on the lower part of the
plate, and the whole sprayed with fixature.

DRAWING PLATE, TITLE: FEMALE HAND

31. For this plate the plaster cast of the female hand
should be used, hanging it in the same position as the block
hand for the former plate. The rendering of this drawing,
however, will be considerably more difficult, as the planes
of light and shade are not so clearly designated, owing to
the finished character of the surface. However, by slightly
closing the eyes the deep shades can be readily distinguished
from the high lights, and the line of demarcation between
them can be studied and indicated on the drawing. The
cast should be placed at such a distance that the pencil
measurement of the length will indicate about 4i inches,
and this should be doubled for the proportions on the draw-
ing plate. The drawing plate, inside the border line, may
be divided into two panels by a vertical line. In the left
panel, render the drawing as a block drawing similar to that
shown in Fig. 40.

First carefully draw the outline of the wrist and hand, noting
that curved guide lines can be drawn to locate the positions
of the points of the fingers, middle joints, and knuckles. The
fingers themselves should then be very carefully drawn in
outline, and also the extended thumb. Note carefully the
subtle curve of the base of the thumb where it intersects
with the wrist line at an obtuse angle, and then indicate the
positions of all the shadows so as to render them in a flat

DRAWING FROM CAST

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block form similar to Fig. 40. Every peculiarity in the
block form should be slightly exaggerated, as these exag-
gerations can be easily toned down in the rendering of the
finished drawing, Fig. 41, and they help to locate individual
points. For instance, the intersection of the little finger
with the back of the hand may be indicated by a much
sharper indentation than appears on the cast, and the lines
connecting different parts of the drawing may be flatter and
straighter than appear on the cast, in order to reduce the
lifelike form to a block form, as shown in Fig. 40.

When the shading is applied to various parts, it also may
be accentuated where the lines of direction change. The
right-hand side from the wrist to the end of the forefinger
will be entirely in shadow, and the line from the forearm to
the wrist may be rendered nearly straight. From the fore-
arm to a point below the knuckle of the forefinger will be
another straight line, and from this point to the knuckle and
thence to the middle joint and end of the finger the shadow
may be drawn out by a series of short, crisp, straight lines.
This same treatment may be followed with the other fingers,
and the whole surface should then be shaded to indicate the
block form, as in Fig. 40. When this form has been ren-
dered, it should be carefully sprayed to prevent its becoming
rubbed or blurred; then proceed to work the same problem
in the right-hand panel of the drawing plate.

32. The second rendering of this drawing should not be
made from the first rendering, but from the cast. Every
effort should be made to go directly to the point desired and
render the second work more satisfactorily and with less
alteration and change than was accomplished with the first.
When it is entirely finished, the two should be compared to
see if there has been any improvement in the second over
the first. Having rendered the second one in block form,
now proceed to round off the shadows to give the appear-
ance of a finished drawing, as shown in Fig. 41.

The lines of demarcation between the shadows should be
so light that they may be easily softened and blended into

§6

DRAWING FROM CAST

60 DRAWING FROM CAST §6

the high light by touching lightly with a piece of stale bread,
and the shadows should be deepened to the right where the
surfaces curve farthest from the source of illumination.
Observe, in Fig. 34, that the darkest part is not the part in
reality the farthest to the right on the drawing, but is mid-
way, or a little more than midway, between the highest light
and the extreme right-hand outline. For instance, note that
on the fingers the darkest portion is in close proximity to
the high light, whereas the portion to the extreme right-hand
outline is considerably lighter. This is due to the fact that
the white surface of the cast reflects light back on the other
fingers and softens up these shadows considerably.

On the wrist, the point next the wall at a, Fig. 41, is con-
siderably lighter than the point at the wrist b. This is due
to the fact that the light falling on the wall is reflected back
to a, but owing to the curvature of the wrist b is more dis-
tant from the wall and does not receive as much, if any, of
this reflected light. In the same manner, the inside of the
thumb at c becomes illuminated by reflected light from the
opposite forefinger, and the inside of the little finger and
the second finger at (/ and e are illuminated by reflections
from the adjacent fingers. Study these subtle shadows care-
fully. They may not appear exactly or anywhere 'nearly as
they do in the illustration, Fig. 41, as they will vary accord-
ing to the lighting and their local conditions.

All this work can be rendered with the crayon pencil, and
when finished, the title, name, date, etc. may be placed as
usual, and the drawing sprayed a little more thoroughly than
in the previous cases, as the deeper shadows show a tend-
ency to rub unless thoroughly sprayed. Care should be
taken, howTever, not to get too much fixative on the surface
of the drawing, as it not only disfigures it but is likely to
cause it to stick together when rolled up.

DRAWING FROM CAST 61

DRAWING PLATE, TITLE: FOOT

33. In rendering a drawing plate of the block foot, there
is little to be said in addition to what has already been
explained in connection with the drawing of the female
hand. In general illustration, and even in drawing from
life, there will be fewer occasions to render the naked foot
than the hand. It is necessary, however, to be familiar with
the shape and characteristics of this detail, so as to better
appreciate the form when rendering feet enclosed in shoes
or sandals, as is more often the case.

The aim of study from cast should be to get the best
general effect with the fewest number of lines and the least
amount of work. A drawing that is constantly fussed over
and changed loses character, and it is better to spend more
time studying the subject and less time putting it on paper
than to hastily sketch some detail that must be almost
immediately rubbed out because insufficient thought was
given to that detail before the drawing of it was commenced.

In drawing the foot in its first block form, as shown in
Fig. 42, it will be necessary to stand it on a table, slightly
below the eye, at such a distance that the pencil measure-
ment will make it about 4^ inches long, which can be
doubled to 9 inches in rendering the plate. The height
should then be located, and the base on which the foot
rests. The ankle, instep, and heel should be indicated by a
few bold lines, greater care being used to outline the subtle
incline from the height of the instep to the point of the
great toe. The positions of the other toes, relative to the
block on which the foot rests, should then be indicated by a
series of small curves, as shown at a, b, c, and d, and the out-
lines of the toes then drawn carefully to where they join the
top of the foot. The line of the shadows should be indi-
cated as shown in Fig. 42, and all the shaded surfaces
rendered in an even tone to express the dark side of the
cast. This being done, the work should be sprayed and
that part of the plate covered over until, as in the previous
case, the same exercise is repeated immediately under this,

64 DRAWING FROM CAST §6

in order to get additional practice in the rendering of the
block form, and also prepare a block form that will be worked
up into a finished cast drawing.

3-4. In finishing up this second block form, more care
should be given to the outline of the front of the ankle and
the top of the foot. The straight, bold lines that in Fig. 42
characterize the work may be subdued into gentle curves,
but these curves should be studied carefully in the cast, and
it will be soon seen that the sweep from a to b in Fig. 43 is
not an even, unchanging curve, but a combination of curves,
and that at the point c it is nearly fiat and in contrast with the
other curves appears almost convex, and at d and c it comes
into fulness again.

These subtle variations in the curvature of surfaces make
drawing from the human figure most interesting and most
difficult. The eye must become well trained to observe
these variations in the cast, where they are fixed and
unchangeable, in order to detect the much more intricate
and difficult curves in drawing from the living figure, where
fatigue will cause change of position and consequently a
constant varying of outline. In drawing from the cast, take
time to study it and determine all the details that are to be
expressed before executing it on paper, so that when draw-
ing from the human figure, familiarity with the cast forms
will make it simpler to work rapidly in order to get general
impressions; excessive time spent in any one place to study
details would find the general pose changed slightly and the
finish of the general outline might represent the figure in a
different position from that in which the drawing was started.
These points are brought out fully in Drawing Front the
Human Figure, but they should be borne in mind by the
student when he is working from cast in order that the
purposes of studying from cast may be properly understood.

Having completed the drawing of the foot in its two forms,
the date, name, and class letter and number should be entered
as usual at the bottom of the plate, and after spraying with
fixative, the plate should be sent in for correction.

DRAWING FROM CAST

66 DRAWING FROM CAST §6

DRAWING PEATE, TITLE: THE DRAPED FIGURE

35. In Fig. 44 is shown a reproduction from a photo-
graph of a piece of statuary — The Venus of Milo. In Fig. 45
is shown the general block outline that should be used upon
which to build up the crayon drawing of this figure. After
completing the preceding exercises, one should be able to
reproduce this drawing so that it will appear as shown in
Fig. 46, with the light-and-shade values rendered about as
represented. It will be observed that liberties have been
taken with these light-and-shade values in comparison with
the photograph in order to more clearly show the modeling
of the parts, thus illustrating the fact that in drawing from a
photograph it is not always necessary to follow every detail
of light and shade that is presented. One must be familiar
with form and know what is necessary, in order to secure
the most pleasing results.

Draw this partly draped figure as a regular drawing plate,
making it about 15 inches high; and after placing the date,
name, etc. in their usual places, spray the drawing with
fixative and send it in for criticism.

THE NEW YORK
PUBLIC LIBRARY

ASTOR, LF.N'OX AND
TILDEN FOUNDATION*

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PUWJC'UBRAM

ELEMENTS OF FIGURE DRAWING

DRAWING FROM THE HUMAN FIGURE

INTRODUCTION

1. Difference Between Life and Cast Drawing.

No one should undertake to make finished drawings from a
living model without having first had considerable practice in
drawing from the plaster cast. There is no harm, however,
in making sketches from the figure that- require no longer
than 15 or 20 minutes time, if full and proper attention be
given to the direction of the lines and the position of the
masses. But the student must be familiar with the form of
the different parts of the body as they appear in the plaster
cast before he can successfully draw from the living model.
No matter how steady it may be, the living model will uncon-
sciously change its posture under growing fatigue, and
unless familiar with form and construction the student will
draw one part of the figure as it first appears and another
part as it appears after the model has sagged from fatigue.
In drawing from the cast, the main forms and proportions
should be closely studied in order that the human form will
be so impressed on his mind that the student can rapidly
sketch the whole figure before exhaustion has set in, and can
promptly detect and eliminate errors in his own work owing
to changes in the pose of the model.

2. Posing the Model. — For general practice it is usually
better to have the model elevated somewhat from the eye. To
accomplish this the model should stand on a box or platform,
while the effect of elevation may be still further increased

For notice of copyright, see page immediately following the title page

ELEMENTS OF FIGURE DRAWING

4 ELEMENTS OF FIGURE DRAWING §7

by the student working in a sitting posture as low as possible.
A convenient easel can be made by inverting an ordinary
kitchen chair, as shown in Fig. 1, which is a photograph of
the life class of the Art Students' League, of New York, and
their usual method of working. The drawing board can thus
be laid at a convenient angle upon the rounds of the chair,
and at the same time the student can plainly see the model.

MATERIALS USED

3. Crayons and Papers. — Drawings from the figure,
as from the cast, may be executed in charcoal or crayon on
white charcoal paper, many brands of which can be found in
art stores. Two popular brands, the Lalanne and the Miche-
let, are imported, while the Strathmore paper made in this
country is considered quite as good. Errors may be erased
by means of a piece of fresh rye bread, as this leaves the
surface of the paper in quite as good condition as before
the erasure, whereas rubber roughens it. A piece of string,
with a weight on the end of it to serve as a plumb-line, is
very serviceable in noting the points that fall beneath one
another in the figure. This may be held before the eye, as
shown in Fig. 2, and various details may be thus recorded
to give points from which to work.

4. Stomps. — Where a fine finish is required to the draw-
ing, a pulverized sauce crayon is laid on with small paper

SS5£S£ESJjgs^7^<--*^*7vr

Fig. 3

stomps, Fig. 3, which consist of rolls of cartridge paper of
various proportions from the size of an ordinary brush handle
to the thickness of the forefinger. From this size, however,
to the largest ones they are usually made of chamois leather.

§7 ELEMENTS OF FIGURE DRAWING 5

For charcoal work it is best not to use the stomp, as it is
more convenient for blocking out and general modeling, but
for close modeling, as delicate finishing is termed, the lines
may be blended into tints by touching them with the stomp,
or it may be dipped in the pulverized sauce crayon as one
would dip a brush in color and the tints laid on directly with
it. In working, one needs a small piece of sandpaper to keep
the crayon pointed, and an easel on which the board can rest.

LAYING IN THE FIGURE

5. Blocking? in. — The first blocking in of the general
form of the figure is called laying in, and it should cover
the whole length of the paper. The reason for this is that
when one is required to make compositions either for
decorative work or for illustration, each figure must rill
a certain space, so that by becoming accustomed to propor-
tioning the size of the drawing to the space it is to fill no
difficulty is met with in future work.

6. Unit of Measurement. — The head, from the chin
to the crown, is commonly iised as a unit of measurement,
each figure being considered as so many heads high. A
pencil held upright at arm's length may be used in estima-
ting the proportions and distances for different parts of the
figure, as shown in Fig. 4. In this way it is possible to
locate almost exactly the position of each detail of the figure
before the main structural lines are boldly drawn in. With
the plumb-line to locate points that fall beneath one another
and the pencil as a scale for measuring, one can readily
locate all the main features with exactness.

The first measurement to take is the height of the head,
and with that as a unit, measure the number of heads in
length each portion of the body appears to be. The stand-
ard human figure is assumed to be eight heads high; that
is to say, a man standing 6 feet in height should have
a head very close to 9 inches in height. The female head,
however, is larger in proportion to the height than the male,
and the average woman stands seven and one-half heads

'•

§7 ELEMENTS OF FIGURE DRAWING 7

high. However, various exceptions to these measurements
are found in every-day practice, as will be pointed out
as we proceed.

7. Action. — In viewing the figure, the first thing to
consider is the action, by which is meant the general trend
of the main lines. By these main lines alone it is possible
to express the entire intention and purpose of the figure.
One readily sees that a man running leans forward, that
a man pulling on a rope and bracing himself leans back-
ward, and that a man standing in conversation usually rests
on one foot so that the main lines of the body are perpen-
dicular. The direction of these lines expresses the action
of the figure and should always be considered first. This
combined with the proportion of the main forms gives
a solid ground on which to proceed with the work.

The lines indicating action and proportion should be
marked by definite points of start and finish, and should be
drawn in boldly without any attempt to closely follow the
general contour. By definite points are meant the shoulders,
hips, knees, ankles, etc., which, being located by means of
the pencil measurement lines, can be drawn from them in
bold sweeps giving the outlines of the main construction.
These lines will give the action; the lines of proportion can
be worked over them. By combining these the first neces-
sary steps in the drawing of a well-constructed figure are
taken. In drawing the arm, work from the point of the
shoulder to the elbow, from the elbow to the wrist, and
from the wrist to the tips of the fingers; this will give to
each form its proper allowance of space and distance, and
the subtle curvature of line that must afterwards be
expressed is built up on it, but should never be attempted
until the first crude drawing is satisfactory and as nearly
correct as possible.

While great stress is laid on these details in drawing the
human figure, they are equally important in the drawing of
any object; but as the human figure is the most difficult of
all objects to express, no detail of these rules can possibly

8 ELEMENTS OF FIGURE DRAWING §7

be overlooked. All estimates of proportion are more or
less dependent on the point of view from which the student
works, and a figure though it measure eight heads in height
would appear more if the eye of the worker were below it,
as would be the case if the model were on a platform. Thus,
a drawing should always be made as it appears under the
influences of different circumstances.

8. Median Line. — The number of heads in height being
established, a central point of the figure is next to be found.
If the view happens to be full front or nearly so, a median,
or central, line can be drawn from the pit of the throat,
between the breasts, to the navel; this will denote the main
trend of the trunk and be of great help in finding the pro-
portion that the shoulders, breasts, arms, and sides bear to
each other. It is always best to draw the figure around a
strong central construction, as this is much easier than
attempting to draw an outline and filling in the other
portions afterwards.

FORESHORTENING

9. Foreshortening is the term applied to the represen-
tation of an object on a plane surface in perspective drawing.
It is a well-known fact that if we look squarely at the surface
of a circle every point of it is equally distant from the center,
but if it is inclined from us its perspective becomes an ellipse
that varies in width according to the angle of inclination.
This narrowing of a dimension is called foreshortening, and
an ellipse drawn or painted to represent a wheel or other
circular form in perspective conveys to the mind the idea of
a circle, because the eye is accustomed to seeing circles in
that shape when they occupy that supposed position.

Foreshortening is also expressed by means of a change in
size, distant and near objects being represented as differing
in size according to the varying distances from the eye. It
should be borne in mind, however, that the relative differ-
ence in size between two objects, one more distant than the
other, is dependent not on the distance that they are apart,
but on the relative distance that each is from the eye. For

§7 ELEMENTS OF FIGURE DRAWING 9

instance, a circle 2 feet in diameter and 20 feet from the eye
will appear only one-fourth the size of a circle 2 feet in
diameter and 10 feet from the eye. In this case the circles
are 10 feet apart. If, however, they are moved backwards
a distance of 100 feet and still maintained at a distance of
10 feet apart, one of them being 110 feet from the eye and
the other 120, their apparent difference in size will be very
slight, as their relative distances from the eye will not differ
so widely. In the same way when drawing the human figure,
it should be borne in mind that distant portions of the
figure, though they appear smaller on account of their
remoteness from the eye, must not be exaggerated in their
diminution; otherwise, the figure will possess a distorted
appearance unless viewed from exactly the same point from
which it was drawn.

10. In the foreshortening of the human head that must
be made when the student is located so that he looks up and
under the chin and other features, the effect will be much
the same as though the head were thrown sharply backwards
and he stood directly in front of the figure. This is illus-
trated in Fig. 7. The space between the eyebrows and
the lids is brought into full view, because none of it is lost
in perspective as is the case when the eyes of the model and
the eyes of the student are on the same level. Here also
one sees the nostrils and beneath them the triangular mass
of shadow that suggests the general formation of the base
of the nose. The upper lip is observable at its greatest
thickness, while the lower lip appears thinner than it would
if the eyes were on a level with those of the model. The
surface beneath the jaw is also distinctly seen, and one
becomes conscious that the chin is more in the foreground
than any other part of the face. The ear is also dropped
below the level of the eye.

If the head and face were geometrical in form, like a cube
or cylinder, their foreshortening could be accomplished with
mathematical precision by means of mathematical perspec-
tive, but the surfaces of the head and face are complex, and

10 ELEMENTS OF FIGURE DRAWING §7

in consequence cannot be governed by any simple rule of
perspective. The eye must be the sole judge.

When the head is observed in three-quarter view and from
a point below the model, the features (or details of the fea-
tures) nearer the eye of the worker appear higher than those
that are farther removed; and, on the contrary, when the
three-quarter view of the head is seen from a point above
the model the features (or parts of the features), nearer the
eye of the student appear lower than those that are farther
removed.

In drawing a head that is much foreshortened, it is well to
grasp points of prominence on which to build the construc-
tion, such as the temples, cheek bones, point of the nose, chin,
and ears. The line from one temple to the other will sug-
gest the main direction of the forehead, from the temple to
the top of the ear another main direction, from the cheek
bones to the chin and the chin to the bottom of the ear still
other directions.

When the head is seen from a point far above the model,
the whole top of the model's head is brought into view; the
eyes are lost beneath the brows, their whereabouts being
suggested only by shadows, and the lower part of the nose
overhangs the upper lip, throwing it into shadow. From
this standpoint the upper lip appears to be very thin and
the under lip is exposed to view at its full thickness.
The under surface of the jaw is completely obscured and the
position of the ear is very high. The position of every
feature, or part of feature, is exactly the reverse of what it
would have been if seen from a very low point of view.

MODELING

11. The term modeling, as applied to drawing and
painting, expresses the idea of form and solidity through the
medium of light and shade. A well-constructed figure even
though drawn only in outline will suggest solidity, but
modeling makes it a tangible mass. If a figure is placed in
strong light coming from one direction, the light and shade

§7 ELEMENTS OE FIGURE DRAWING 11

will resolve themselves into well-defined planes, while the
margins of the shadows will seem to have a definite outline,
darker in some places than the body of the shadow itself.
We speak of planes of light and shade, as that is the most
convenient way of expressing" these details.

We assume, to start with, that the body is composed of a
number of flat or flattened surfaces joined together to cover
the general mass in the same manner as the block head and
the block hand. The blending of the shadows where these
planes meet gives the rotundity and completes the modeling
of the figure. The simple effect of light-and-shade study in
the block head and hand are perfectly applicable here, and
though the shadows may not be sharply defined they may be
considered so and blended off afterwards. In figure draw-
ing, the eye must search carefully for half tones of shadow
that are not seen in the block cast, in order to express them
in their proper value.

In drawing from the figure the first thought should be to
search for the definite margins of the main shadows; accents
that are strong in some portions of the margins are lost in
others, and in other places the margins of the shadows
appear to blend with the lights forming the half tones.
Careful search, however, will disclose the fact that the half
tone itself has a definite margin. Looking at the figure as
a whole, search for three different planes of tone — the full
light, the full shadow, and the half tone. With practice it
is possible to distinguish and draw the margins of these
three tones accurately and then to lay in the tones them-
selves. Thus, the effect of solidity is certain, because the
blending of one tone with another is a very simple matter.
There is a danger, however, that even when these three
tones are correctly drawn, there will be a certain harshness
and want of sympathy in the treatment of the shadows.

As these tones have been worked in mechanically the
figure lacks the softness and lifelike appearance that it pos-
sesses in nature. We must give to these shadows, therefore,
that infinite variety that they really possess. Searching the
planes once more, places on the margin of the shadows are

12 ELEMENTS OF FIGURE DRAWING §7

found where the definition is entirely lost, the shadow melts
entirely into the light; in other places, the definition is
accented by a greater depth of tone and a more distinct edge.
This search for variety in the quality of the shadow should
be made after the main tones are rendered, because it is
very hard to discern and is liable to detract from the char-
acter of the work if an attempt is made to render them as
the general modeling proceeds.

ANALYTIC STUDY OF THE HUMAN FIGURE

THE HEAD

12. Profile View. — Viewed in profile, the head maybe
enclosed in a perfect square and the face divided into thirds

from the roots of the hair to the chin, as shown in Fig. 5.
These thirds may be marked: 1, from the roots of the hair
to the brows; 2, from the brows to the base of the nose; and
3, from the base of the nose to the bottom of the chin. The

Fig. (i

ELEMENTS OF FIGURE DRAWING

distance from the crown of the head to the roots of the hair
is one-fifth the height of the head. These measurements vary
with each individual and cannot be taken absolutely, but for
general drawing may be considered as a basis for construction.

13. Full View. — In the front, or full-face, view, the
head may be considered as five eyes in width, the space

■/IP?—

Fig. 7

between the eyes and on each side occupying a distance
equal to the length of the eye itself, Fig. 6. If a cross-
section of the head were made at the height of the eyebrows,
it would be nearly oval in shape with the fulness in the back;
the ordinary band of a hat illustrates this. If a piece of tape

§7 ELEMENTS OF FIGURE DRAWING 15

be tied around the head at the line of the brows so that it
touches the tip of the ears it will describe an oval and form
a means of locating certain features of the face when the
head is thrown backwards or forwards so as to change the
relative position of the features, as shown in Fig-. 7. Thus,
in drawing the head from any standpoint, whether the eye is
far beneath, looking up to the model, or above, looking down
on him, the brows and tips of the ears will always follow
this oval strip, or tape, and can always be accurately
located. However, the human head is so varied in propor-
tion that it must be drawn as seen irrespective of any set
rules, for adherence to them is likely to be productive of a
stock face or figure that soon becomes devoid of interest
and novelty.

THE NECK AND SHOULDERS

14. After the placing of the head, the neck and shoulders
must be considered; a line from the point of one shoulder to
the point of the other gives the general direction. Where
the neck joins the back of the
head it rises much higher
than at its junction with the ( \

fleshy part of the face under '^v.._ ; "" f

the jaw, but the junction of ~~~ j i

the neck with the back at the I \

line of the shoulders is cor- i _ ■{■-"

respondingly higher than its j - •■ .

junction at the pit of the y^s"

throat. Thus, the column of

the neck has a downward, pig. 8

oblique direction from its

points of junction in the back to its points of junction in the

front part of the body, as shown in Fig. 8.

The shoulders, which in the common acceptance of the
word include all the space from the neck to the muscle that
caps the end of the bone of the upper arm (usually termed
the humerus), rise above the clavicles, or collar bones, and
form a sort of muscular defense for them.

16 ELEMENTS OF FIGURE DRAWING §7

THE MUSCLES OF THE BREAST AND ABDOMEN

15. The Pectoral Muscles. — The two rather massive
prominences on the breast of the male figure shown at a,
Fig. 6, and b, Fig. 9, are the pectoral muscles. They are
separated by a slight indentation or hollow extending from
the pit of the throat downward. In repose their surface is
unbroken by any muscular markings, but under strong action

they are well defined.
Their contour is indi-
cated by the shape of the
shadows that fall on them.
The various forms on the
chest are very readily
located by the relative
\ positions of the nipples,
i which in the standard
b 1 male figure are one head

below the chin, as shown
in Fie. 6.

Fig. 9

16. Muscles of the
Abdomen. — Beneath the
massive pectoral muscles,
on each side of a perpen-
dicular line to the pubes,
are the muscles of the
abdomen. These also are
somewhat indistinct when
in repose, and are frequently obliterated entirely by an excess
of fat. In the thin or muscular figure they are sharply defined
when in action and appear as three separate masses on each
side of a median line from the base of the pectoral muscles
to the pubes.

17. The Breasts. — In drawing the breasts of a female
figure, the forms and shadows are very subtle. In the front
view (see Fig. 25) where there are no contouring outlines,
the expression of these details depends entirely on the careful

§7 ELEMENTS OF FIGURE DRAWING 17

rendering of the marginal shadows and the correct estimate
of their proper tones. The position of the nipples and their
relative position to the navel should be accurately determined,
as these three points are of primary importance in the con-
struction of the torso, or trunk, of the figure.

THE SHOULDER, ARM, AND HAND

18. The Humerus, Ulna, and Radius. — In the upper
part of the arm there is a single large bone called the
humerus. At its upper extremity it joins the shoulder, and
at its lower extremity it unites with two smaller bones, called
the ulna and the radius, and forms the elbow. The ulna and
the radius unite at the wrist with several smaller bones that
extend to the joints of the fingers. In the construction of
the forearm, as the lower portion of the arm is called, the
radius is on the side of the arm that connects with the
thumb, while the ulna is on the side that connects with
the little finger.

19. The Deltoid Muscle, and the Biceps and Tri-
ceps.— Over the shoulder joint where the humerus connects
with the clavicle is stretched the deltoid muscle, which caps
the shoulder like an epaulet, as shown at c, Fig. 9, and b,
Fig. 6. The biceps muscle e, Fig. 9, which is that one made
prominent in the front of the upper arm, is forwards of the
humerus, and the triceps muscle d, corresponding with it
on the back of the arm, is on the opposite side. Thus,
the upper arm is deeper than it is wide owing to the fact
that these two muscles lie on opposite sides of the bone, and
its greatest dimension is seen when viewed from the side.

20. Pronation and Supination. — When the arm is in
the act of pronation, that is, in the position shown in
Fig. 10, the muscles of the forearm assume a widely differ-
ent appearance from that seen when the arm is in the act of
supination, as shown in Fig. 11. During pronation the
position of the bone of the forearm is distinctly seen by the
shadow that runs to the point of the elbow. During supina-
tion the bone is not seen, and the shadow shown is under the

18 ELEMENTS OF FIGURE DRAWING §7

§7 ELEMENTS OF FIGURE DRAWING 19

muscle. The contours on the upper and lower lines are
changed completely, especially about the wrist. Familiarity
with these forms is only reached through long practice in
drawing from the figure and close observation. Therefore,
the details of the arm in both these attitudes should be care-
iully studied so that the memory will be stamped with the
difference in the contours of the muscles. In pronation, the
forearm has reached what is practically its extreme limit of
range in one direction, and in supination it has reached the
extreme limit in another direction. There are varieties of
action between these two extremes that change the position
of the muscles to such an extent that one must be thoroughly
familiar with them in order to have the arm in good drawing,
no matter in what position it may be.

21. The Arm. — In Fig. 12 is shown the male arm as
seen from a low point of view, in consequence of which it is
considerably foreshortened. The shoulder cap, or deltoid
muscle, here becomes clearly defined, and the muscles of the
forearm are shown rigid and full near the elbow owing to
the fist being clenched. The shadow on the inside of the
arm indicates the intersections of the planes that give the
contour in this position.

In Fig. 13 the female arm is shown with a clenched fist.
By being drawn up tight against the upper arm, the forearm
is given a fulness near the elbow that is seen in no other
position. The characteristic smoothness of the female arm
is also shown. Even in this position the muscles are not
knotty and hard as in the male arm, but the curves round off
gracefully, one into the other, forming gentle undulations
rather than sharp, emphatic curves. This is a characteristic
that distinguishes all of the contours in the female figure
from similar contours in the male figure.

Fig. 14 shows a muscular arm of the male figure, the
development of which is clearly shown. The deltoid muscle
of the shoulder can be seen reaching like an epaulet from
the top of the shoulder to the side of the arm and entering
it in a blunt point between the biceps muscle and the triceps.

ELEMENTS OF FIGURE DRAWING

The triceps bulges slightly at the back of the arm, but its
fullest part is nearer the shoulder than the nearest part of

:■■

■■

the biceps. The muscles of the forearm are emphasized, as
in Fig. 12, by the clenching of the fist, but if the hand were
gradually opened the muscles on each side of the forearm

§7

ELEMENTS OF FIGURE DRAWING

would gradually flatten out and the fulness of the forearm
spread somewhat toward the wrist.

Fig. 15 shows the male arm in a relaxed state, but the
muscular development is suffi-
cient for one to observe the
power contained therein. Down
the full length of the arm the
plane of shadow indicates the
shape of the muscular forms
beneath the skin and follows

each concavity or convexity of surface on the side away from
the light. The position of the elbow becomes marked by a
sharp angle in the shadow, while on the back of the hand

ELEMENTS OF FIGURE DRAWING §7

1 an

■ym

Fig. 15

§7

ELEMENTS OF FIGURE DRAWING

24 ELEMENTS OF FIGURE DRAWING §7

each knuckle and joint is expressed by a modeling of small
planes of light and shade. This illustration will bear careful
study; the prominent bone on the outside of the wrist and
each of the joints of the fingers are expressed by a little
plane of light located in just the right place.

Fig. 16 shows the construction of the arms and location
of the planes of light and shade, when these members are
seen from behind. The muscular development is slight and
the position one of complete inaction and listlessness. The
feeling of inaction is expressed by the flatness of the muscles
and the evenness of the curves from one plane to another.
Note the creases and folds in the skin that give character
to the elbows and also to the expression of the ligaments in
the wrist as they run from the muscles of the forearms to
the fingers. Though none of the muscles are contracted, the
plane of shadow on the inside of the left arm shows all the
gradations of bone structure and muscle, and in many cases
will even indicate the form, branching, and general distribu-
tion of the veins. In the right arm note particularly the thin
appearance of the upper part; this is due to the fact that the
biceps and triceps are set one before the other with the bone
between them, so that the smallest dimension of this portion
of the arm is shown. But the position of the forearm is
such that the bones and accompanying muscles are seen
from their widest standpoint. The relative widths and posi-
tions of the various proportions of the arms as they are
turned in different positions should be carefully studied.

In Fig. 17 is shown a profile view of the female right arm.
The upper arm appears rather short for the forearm owing
to the fact that when making this drawing the model was
placed far above the eye. This foreshortening gives the
effect of elevation to the figure. The left arm resting upon
the small of the back shows the smooth, graceful curves of
the outside line of the female arm in this position, contrasted
with the sturdy and abruptly changing planes of the male
arm. In both the left and right arms the unbroken smooth-
ness of line characteristic of the female figure is strongly
illustrated.

7 ELEMENTS OF FIGURE DRAWING 25

Fig. 17

ELEMENTS OF FIGURE DRAWING

In Fig. 18 the thin, undeveloped arms of a young girl
are shown. Here the chief interest centers in the fore-
shortening of the forearms and of the hands. In the
model's right arm the wrist is entirely hidden, and unless
the arm and elbow, as seen to the left and below it, are
properly rendered the unity between the hand and the arm
will not be expressed. This should be very carefully

Fig. 18 *';:>v '

studied. In the model's left arm nothing is hidden, but
the foreshortening must be carefully studied and the work
must be very accurate. In this position the hands appear
larger than they would ordinarily, as they are from 8 inches
to 12 inches nearer the eye than the elbow. No set rule can
be given for this foreshortening, but attention must be given
to the proportions of all the parts in order that the fore-
shortening may be expressive of existing conditions.

§7 ELEMENTS OF FIGURE DRAWING 27

22. Tlie Hand. — The appearance of the hand is so
influenced by perspective in all positions that actual meas-
urements of its proportions are of little value. The fore-
finger and the third finger are usually of about the same
length, and the distance from the knuckles of the forefinger
to the joint of the wrist is approximately the same as the
distance from the knuckles to the tip of the finger. The
middle finger is longer than those next to it, and the little
finger is the shortest of the four.

The characteristics of the hand naturally vary with the
individual. In the clenched fist the forms are very similar
to those of a plain block hand, and in drawing details of the
hand the same rules apply as in drawing the head or other
parts of the figure. The mind and eye seize on prominent
points for starting and finishing lines. These points vary with
the position of the hand, but generally speaking, the wrist,
knuckles, and first and second joints of the fingers and thumb
are to be located first and the construction built around them;
close drawing of the contours may then follow. The shadows
should be carefully modeled so that their margins will be well
defined, as the solidity of appearance is dependent entirely
on the accuracy with which these shadows are handled.

THE THIGH

23. Location of the Principal Muscles. — In studying
the thigh it is well to know where certain muscles are placed,
although this member is usually so covered with fat that it
is difficult to find lines of separation between the various
sets of muscles. When the thigh is made rigid by strong
action it will be seen that on the outside of the upper part
of the thigh there is a large muscular prominence that forms
a ridge that extends obliquely across the leg, from a to b,
Fig. 19 (a) , so that when it reaches a point above the knee it
is on the inside of the leg. This ridge is made up of several
large muscles, but their origin is difficult to trace on the
figure, and consequently in rendering the thigh the eye must
carefully search for shadows and their outlines in order that
all may be intelligently expressed.

ELEMENTS OF FIGURE DRAWING

(a)

Pig. 19

§7 ELEMENTS OF FIGURE DRAWING 29

24. The Biceps of the Leg. — The large muscle on the
back of the thigh is known as the biceps of the leg, and
has a use similar to that of the biceps of the arm; that is,
to draw the lower portion of the leg upwards and toward
it. Its prominence is plainly seen when the leg is viewed
from the side and gives the thigh, similar to the arm, a
greater depth than thickness. The upper bone of the leg
is called the femur and unites with two smaller bones in the
lower portion of the leg, called the tibia and the fibula.

The thigh of a female is much larger in proportion to
the calf than that of the male.

THE LOWER LEG

25. The three principal muscles of the lower leg are the
two large ones that form the calf, and a smaller one in front
of the shin bone. Viewed from the direct front, the promi-
nence of the calf is very marked. Its most prominent part
on the outside of the leg is somewhat higher than its most
prominent part on the inside of the leg, as may be seen in
Fig. 19. In rising on the ball of the foot these muscles are
brought sharply into prominence, and when seen from the
back of the leg their form is very clearly defined. The shin
muscle is brought into prominence by placing the heel firmly
on the floor and drawing the foot upwards as far as possible.
In profile, or side view, the shin muscle curves slightly for-
wards from the bone, and the greatest width of the calf is
slightly higher than a point midway between the kneepan
and the sole of the foot, as shown in Figs. 20, 21, and 23.

The position of the foot governs the appearance of the
muscles of the leg in identically the same manner as the posi-
tion of the hand governs the muscles of the arm. With every
turn of the foot the points of muscular prominence vary.

The muscles on the inside of the leg are seldom so well
marked in women as in men, the lines being much straighter
on the inside, as a rule, and more curved on the outside.
The shaping of the muscles themselves, however, is practi-
cally the same, and the difference of appearance between
the male and female is due almost entirely to the filling in

30 ELEMENTS OF FIGURE DRAWING £7

of fat. Owing to habitual exercise, due largely to the differ-
ence of amusements among male and female children, the
male muscles become strongly developed and less fat fills in
between them. In the adult's leg the male is characterized
by a development that clearly locates the position of each
muscle, whereas in the female the curves of the leg are
continuous and the delineation of the muscles can be traced
with difficulty.

There is a common tendency in the male figures toward a
separation of the knees giving a bow-legged appearance,
while in the female figure the tendency is toward a knock-
kneed appearance. This latter is intensified by the fact that
the hips of the female figure are very broad and the lines
from the hips to the knees taper very rapidly. Thus, this
knock-kneed appearance exists even where, as a matter of
fact, the limbs are perfectly straight.

26. Fig. 19 shows the comparative proportions of the
male and female thigh and leg when viewed from nearly the
same standpoint. Assuming the calves to measure practi-
cally the same in circumference, it can readily be seen that
the female thigh and knee are rounder and larger. than the
male and that the lines causing this appearance are on
the outside of the leg. On the outside line of the lower leg,
however, the contours are nearly the same; but on the inside
line the most prominent point of the calf is higher and con-
siderably greater in the male figure than in the female.
This difference of appearance is due largely to fat filling
the space below the knee in the female figure, the muscular
development of the male being more defined than that of
the female.

In the comparison of these two limbs one can see the
characteristic difference between the male and the female
figure, the former being sharply contoured and muscularly
expressive, the latter being soft and undulating in its form.
Study, line for line, these two limbs; they will be found to
possess at nearly the same points exactly the same curves
and in the same directions, but the gradations from one

§7

ELEMENTS OF FIGURE DRAWING

Fig. 20

32 ELEMENTS OF FIGURE DRAWING §7

curve to the other are much more delicate in the female
than in the male limb. Here, too, can be observed the
cause of the appearance of knock-kneedness so prevalent in
the female figure, the outside line of the leg exhibiting a
greater indentation at the knee in the female than in the
male figure. If a straightedge, however, be laid along the
inside of each of these legs from the ankle bone to the top
of the thigh, it will be found, as a matter of fact, that neither
is in the slightest degree knock-kneed but that the female
limb is a trifle the reverse if anything.

27. Fig. 20 is a drawing of the male limbs with the
weight of the body thrown forwards, thus bringing into
prominence the muscle of the front of the right thigh and a
fulness of the shin muscle directly below the right knee.
The left leg exerts a backward pressure in this action prin-
cipally on the toes and ball of the foot, and the clean defi-
nition of the thigh muscles just above the knee shows where
the greatest strain comes. The muscle on the inside of the
left calf also suggests pressure, and the expression of action
in this figure is due entirely to the modeling about the knees
and along the sides of the limbs that shows the tensity of
this muscle.

In the left leg the curve of the shin bone from the knee
down is strongly indicated by the shadow on the inside of
the muscle. The right foot is in full profile here, while the
left foot is foreshortened in front view, and forms an
excellent study in the relative points of prominence in the
ankle both outside and inside.

Fig. 21 is a study of modeling to indicate the muscular
forms in the male limbs when viewed from the side and
posed somewhat as in Fig. 20. The definition of the knee
joint and kneecap is very clearly marked here and the ankle
bone stands out with great prominence, showing the point of
hinge or turning at this member. The depression above the
kneecap in the left leg appears here, giving fulness to the
muscle above it in the same manner as in Fig. 20, but
the point of view being farther to the right than in Fig. 20,

§7

ELEMENTS OF FIGURE DRAWING

Fig. 21

34 ELEMENTS OF FIGURE DRAWING §7

we lose sight entirely of the prominence on the inside of
the calf.

In studying from the model, at all times take advantage of
opportunities to walk around it and notice the change of con-
tour at each step. As one steps to the right or left of the
point of view, certain muscles become foreshortened and
others come into prominence, and it is only by the careful
study of these that correct delineation can be given to the
subtle character of the human figure. It is only by this
study and the repeated drawing from the figure in these
positions that the details can be impressed on the mind
sufficiently to permit the correct delineation of forms in
illustrative work.

Fig. 22 is a direct view of the prominent points on the
inside and outside of the left leg when seen from behind.
In the outside of the thigh there is very slight convexity,
while in the line of the inside there is a slight concavity
about midway to the knee. The point of prominence in the
outside of the calf is higher than the point of prominence
on the inside of the calf; the location of these points of
prominence is an important detail that should be studied
from the living model, as the position of the feet has a
strong influence in the general contour of the leg. For
instance, in Fig. 22 the foot of the left leg rests at a given
angle, thus causing the contours of the leg to assume a
certain definite form, but the foot of the right leg is turned
outwards and the contours of this leg are considerably
changed. Not only is it important to establish these con-
tours correctly in order to satisfy the eye as to the accuracy
of the drawing, but the shadows indicating the planes must
be well placed, or the whole composition will be incongruous
and unsatisfactory.

In Fig. 23 the smooth, unbroken quality of the outline is
strongly indicative of the female figure. The flesh is laid so
smoothly over the muscles that their characteristic promi-
nences are almost entirely hidden. A comparison of the
rounded, undulating forms here with the knotty, muscular
development of Figs. 20 and 21 again illustrates the

ELEMENTS OF FIGURE DRAWING

Fig. 22

36 ELEMENTS OF FIGURE DRAWING §7

Fig. 23

§7 ELEMENTS OF FIGURE DRAWING 37

distinguishing characteristics of the male and female figure.
Here, as in Fig. 19, the thigh is shown round and full, and
the construction here and in the knees is almost entirely
obscured by the presence of fat. The width of the hips
is especially noticeable, although the figure for the most
part is rather slight.

Fig. 20 showed a profile of the right foot as seen from the
inside; here is shown a profile of the left foot as seen from
the inside. The one being male and the other female, how-
ever, there are slight differences in contour, but the rise of
the ankle from the instep and heel can be profitably studied
from both points of view.

28. In Fig. 23 the comparative size of the thigh and calf
of the female figure are well shown. Owing to the anatom-
ical character and great width of the female hips, a large
thigh is a necessity in order to give grace to the leg; other-
wise, the lines from the hips to the knees would be concave,
giving an appearance of awkwardness and weakness. Here
can also be observed another characteristic that offsets this
tendency to weakness in appearance; that is, the fulness of
the calf on the outside and the tendency of the same to a
straight line on the inside. The foot here is in full front
view, and the right leg is shown foreshortened, as seen from
a point considerably above its level, while the foreshortened
left foot in Fig. 20 was seen from a point very little above
its level. In the right foot shown in Fig. 23, two prominent
points of the ankle bone should be studied carefully. When-
ever opportunity arises this should be studied from the living
model, inasmuch as the points of prominence on the inside
and outside vary constantly with changes of position.

THE FOOT

29. In drawing the foot in profile estimate its length by
comparison with some fixed scale of measurement, such as
the head, or by the proportion it bears to the length of the
leg from the knee to the sole of the foot. The contour of
the instep, the position of the ankle bone, and the shape of

§7 ELEMENTS OF FIGURE DRAWING 39

the heel are next in importance. In its main lines the form
of the block foot, Fig. 24. will be brought to mind, although
the surface is much rounder and more varied, thus making
modeling much more difficult. In the direct front view the
size and position of the toes and the relative position of the
outside and inside prominence of the ankle bone are very
important, and must be studied very closely.

There are many other smaller muscles throughout the
body that are of importance in artistic anatomy, but the
ones given have the most direct influence on the shapes of
different parts of the body in various positions and should
be studied carefully whenever opportunity affords in order
that their true value may be appreciated.

THE FIGURE

30. In general, among artists and models the term
figure is used to indicate the nude figure, male or female.
Drawings or studies from draped models are usually termed
character or costume studies. So, wherever the expression is
hereafter used it will be understood that lines of the figure
refer to lines of the nude figure. Having studied many
details concerning the general proportions and characteristics
of the arms and limbs, the trunk, or torso, as it is termed,
and the figure as a whole will now be considered. For
this purpose it is best to have a model; if one is not obtain-
able, the next best thing is a photograph of a nude figure
showing the characteristics to be pointed out.

It should always be borne in mind when studying from
photographs or living models that perfection of line and
proportion does not exist in any one person, and that sub-
jects available for models are not selected on account of the
perfection of their anatomy but simply to illustrate charac-
teristics of individual figures, which form an endless variety
throughout the human race. The artist in painting a clas-
sical picture may use one model for the head and face and
several others for other portions of the body. He may
idealize somewhat or he may hold strictly to the character-
istics of the model before him.

40 ELEMENTS OF FIGURE DRAWING §7

In the following- photographic illustrations attention is
called to the general characteristics of the human figure as a
whole and to the particular characteristics of this individual
model, in order to show details and characteristics that
might be found in other models.

FRONT VIEW OF THE FIGURE

31. In Fig. 25 is shown a front view of the female
figure divided vertically by a series of horizontal lines indi-
cating the number of heads in height; these heads are
numbered from 0 to 8. This model is exceptionally tall for
a female figure, but has been selected to illustrate the pro-
portions on which the human figure is more generally based.
Observe that the feet of the figure end midway between
7 and 8, showing the figure to be seven and one-half heads
high. The space between 0 and 1 is somewhat less than
the other spaces, as the head is thrown to one side and
the length indicated by the diagonal 01. Observe also the
breadth of the body at line 4, which is just below the
broadest part of the thighs, and the taper almost in straight
lines from this point to the knees. This figure is less than
two heads wide at this point, but is fully two heads wide —
including both arms — at line 2, which passes, as will be
observed, through the nipples. The right nipple of this
figure, it will be observed, comes above this line, as the
right arm is thrown over the head, thereby raising the details
of that side of the body. Three heads below the crown the
line passes through the navel, and four heads below the line
marks the pubes or end of the torso. The knees are located
between lines 5 and 6, and the broadest part of the calves is
just below 6, where the taper is rapid and direct to the
ankles. From their point of junction with the body about
line 4, the insides of the legs are indicated by a nearly
straight line to 6, where it trends somewhat outwards, giving
this characteristic knock-kneed appearance, which is intensi-
fied by the great width of the hips. The lines on the inside
of the legs are very simple throughout, and the form of the

§7 ELEMENTS OF FIGURE DRAWING 41

Fig. 25

42 ELEMENTS OF FIGURE DRAWING §7

mass in drawing is dependent entirely on the contour given
to the lines on the outside of the legs.

These general contours should be carefully studied so as
to see the main trend of lines and points of muscular prom-
inence. In drawing from such a figure the width of the hips
between lines 3 and 4, the breadth at J, the contraction at
the knees, etc. should be carefully noted, and the general
outline swept in by broad, straight strokes that give the
general proportion and contour at once in as few lines as
possible. After these general lines are drawn in they can
be worked to proper curvatures, planes of light and shade
carefully studied, and the figure modeled into form. The
modeling of the breasts is very subtle and is dependent
entirely on the proper placing of the planes of shade. In
this position there is no outline save where the right breast
extends beyond the line of the body.

This figure is unusually narrow at the waist line, between
2 and 3 — an effect characteristic of certain types of
women, owing to customs of tight lacing, etc. Oriental
females do not possess this characteristic.

BACK VIEW OF THE FIGURE

32. Fig. 26 is a back view of the figure in practically the
same position as that shown in Fig. 25, except that the left
arm is thrown over the head in order that the general out-
line may be as nearly the same in the two cases as possible.
The excessive narrowness at the waist line is more notice-
able here than in Fig. 25, and although the upper part of the
figure is sufficiently slender to show the bony construction
and muscular covering thereof about the shoulders and
arms, the buttocks and thighs are so loaded with fat that all
suggestion of bony structure is lost as far down as the prom-
inence on the inside of the knee. The knock-kneed appear-
ance of the figure is still more noticeable than in the front
view, as the line separating the two legs is not straight but
distinctly angular at the knee.

Note here, in comparison with Fig. 25, the position of the

§7 ELEMENTS OF FIGURE DRAWING 43

Fig. 26

44 ELEMENTS OF FIGURE DRAWING §7

lines marking the head-lengths. Line 2, which in the front
view passed through the nipples, in the back is a little less
than midway between the shoulder and the waist line; and
line 4, which marked the termination of the torso in Fig. 25,
here falls below the buttocks, showing that this portion of
the figure is higher than the pubes. Note that while the
line from the left elbow to the waist is nearly straight in
itself, it is broken by a series of delicate undulations so
subtle as to be scarcely noticeable, yet of importance in
rendering graceful the outline of the figure itself.

The fat and skin spread over the muscles of the back and
prevent the proper appreciation of their construction. The
skin has a tendency to smoothen the entire surface into a
mass of delicate undulations so that the identity of separate
muscles is entirely lost. In the back view, two muscles,
called trapezius muscles, cover the back and shoulders like
a pointed cape, the point coming below the middle of the
spine and the upper edge extending across the shoulders
over the ends of the deltoid muscle. Several lateral muscles
are stretched each side of the trapezius, covering the ribs at
this part and giving roundness to the trunk. The hollow
usually termed the small of the back is covered by a long
muscle extending into the great muscles of the buttocks,
which are termed the glutei muscles.

In rendering this figure, the point of the wrist above the
crown of the head, the elbow, the left armpit, and the waist
line will form points of prominence between which the
first general outlines may be swept, the outlines of the
lower portion of the body being located through points
similar to those indicated in Fig. 25.

THREE-QUARTER VIEW OF THE FIGURE

33. In Fig. 27 the figure is posed with both arms above
the head in order to more clearly show the construction of
the body. Here it will be observed that line 2 passes
through the nipple of the right breast, while it falls below
the nipple of the left breast. Both of these breasts are

§7 ELEMENTS OF FIGURE DRAWING 45

Fig.

46 ELEMENTS OF FIGURE DRAWING §7

raised by the action of the arms, but as the body sags
slightly to the right the trend of the lines causes this con-
tradiction to Fig. 25. Note, also, that the nipple of the left
breast is exactly in the center of the breast, while the one
on the right is in full profile. This is an important charac-
teristic to be observed in the female breasts. They are
practically at right angles to each other in plan, so that the
axial lines through both nipples will meet each other at an
angle of 90° within the body. Between lines 3 and 4 on the
under part of the abdomen is a deep shadow showing the
overhanging prominence of that part of the body. When
seen more in profile, this overhanging prominence is still
more striking and gives the appearance that a part of the
waist is carried forwards from the hips. This is a charac-
teristic of the female figure, as the knees have a tendency to
be sprung well back, but this tendency is exaggerated
owing to peculiarities of female dress that have, in many
sections of the world, changed the form from what nature
intended it to be.

In Fig. 28 the pose is changed slightly in order to show
the relative positions of the legs. Here the overhanging
prominence between lines 3 and 4 is still further illustrated.
The broad, upward sweep of the hip line to between lines
2 and 3, running nearly parallel with it, gives this forward
trend to the figure characteristic of the female. The fact
that the line of the front of the leg or shin between lines
6 and 7 has an inclination that makes a distinct angle with
the line from 4 to between 5 and 6, adds more to this appear-
ance of forward projection of the figure.

In searching for points on which to construct this outline
one will naturally discover that the under sides of the arms,
where they join the body, form two points of starting. The
location of the nipples, navel, and pubes at lines 2, 3, and /
gives definite points about which the right side of the figure
can be constructed. The line from the armpit to the curve
of the thigh and thence to the broadest part of the buttocks
between lines 3 and 4 is easily located, and general sweeps,
through indicative points will model the limbs.

7 ELEMENTS OF FIGURE DRAWING 47

Fig. 28

48 ELEMENTS OF FIGURE DRAWING §7

This forward projection of the upper part of the body will
at first appear a distortion, but a careful study of photo-
graphs and good drawings of women in the modern Amer-
ican and European style of dress will show why this
appearance is not noticeable. The dress hangs straight
from about line 3, in front, to the floor; whereas, in the back
it hangs straight from the rounded outline of the hips and
buttocks. The curves, though naturally blended into one
another here, are increased by the use of corsets, in order
that this part of the body through its suppleness will not
distort or interfere with the hanging of the garments.

SIDE VIEW OF THE FIGURE

34. In Fig. 29 is shown a side view of the figure in a
rather conventional position in order to indicate the relative
position of the various members, as compared with previous
figures where the model was standing. Here the position
of the arm hanging by the side in profile, and the curve
from the under side of the chin to the breast can be studied.
It will be noted that the line of the back disappears entirely
behind the arm, but this illustration is of importance to show
the effect of relaxation on different muscles. The breasts,
relieved of the lifting tendency caused by the arms in pre-
vious cases being thrown above the head, now fall to their
natural positions and the line of the abdomen flattens out,
as the muscles in the upper part of it, being in repose,
no longer support the under part. The contour of the
calves of the legs, the instep, and the foot in profile is
illustrated here.

In drawing the side view find convenient points for bound-
ing the outlines, in the pit of the throat, nipples, juncture of
the abdomen with the legs, the knees, ankles, and toes.
Study carefully the planes that indicate the contours of the
various parts and note how subtle are the curves that
characterize the details of the figure.

In Fig. 30 we have another seated posture in which the
parts are more foreshortened. Compare the proportions of

7 ELEMENTS OF FIGURE DRAWING 49

50 ELEMENTS OF FIGURE DRAWING §7

the parts of the body from the top of the head to the base
of the trunk, from the base of the trunk to the knee, and
from the knee to the ground. The head as a scale of
measurement is indicated here by lines, those on the left
leg being indicated in a diagonal direction in order to be at
right angles with the member.

In Fig. 29 it should have been noted that the elbow falls
just above line .5, as can be seen also in Fig. 25; while in
Fig. 26 the elbow is considerably below the waist line at
the back. In Fig. 29, however, the waist line does not
appear distinctly, but the shadow on the inside of the arm
would indicate it to be very nearly at the level of the elbow,
thus showing that the waist line has been pushed up some-
what in the seated posture. In Fig. 30 the waist line is
distinctly visible just above the elbow, and proves that this
change of posture has produced a change of position.

In Fig. 30 considerable attention should be given to the
location of the shadows. The face is divided by a distinct
line through the center; beneath the chin as the shadow falls
on the throat and shoulder it becomes diffused, but when
viewed with partially closed eyes its margin is distinctly dis-
cernible and its characteristic shape can be studied. A tri-
angular mass of shadow marks the turn of the breast into the
side, and beneath the breast a small patch of deeper shadow
shows, by contrast, the general form and contour of the
breast. On the thigh and down the side of the leg the
shadow is very diffused, but its margin becomes sharp near
the knee and on the ankle and can be indicated if carefully
studied. The right foot, as it turns under the knee of the
left foot, is a difficult piece of foreshortening. The under
side of the foot is partially visible here, although in deep
shadow.

The high light accentuates the outline, and the planes
should be carefully studied with partially closed eyes in
order that proper values may be given. The right arm is
entirely lost behind the front, but it throws the left breast
into profile against the background and characterizes the
ease of the pose.

§7 ELEMENTS OF FIGURE DRAWING 51

52 ELEMENTS OF FIGURE DRAWING §7

THE PROSTRATE FIGURE

35. In Fig. 31 the pose ably illustrates the contour of
the back of the figure. Here the long, gently but beauti-
fully, undulating line from the heels to the shoulders is
characteristic of all the other poses heretofore considered.
Note a deep inward curve at the small of the back, here
intensified by the position of the shoulders, which are
thrown forwards as the arms are thrust upwards. The
gentle fall from here to the waist and the sharp upward
curve give prominence to the buttocks. From the buttocks
to the back of the knee the line is nearly straight, and from
the knee to the heel the compound curve characteristic of the
back of the leg is very prominent.

The modeling is simple in a case of this kind, and the
lines are clean cut and the margins sharp. The arms and
hands stand in full relief against the background, while below
the shoulder of the right arm a deep shadow marks the
shape of the deltoid muscle. Beneath the hip also a dark
shadow can be seen showing the contour of the muscles at
this portion of the body where they merge into the back.
On the foot are three distinct planes of shadow, each of
which is well defined: the darkest is from the toes to the
instep, the middle tone on the instep, and the lightest tone
indicates the side of the foot.

In Fig. 32 the sinuous and serpentine character of the
figure is well illustrated by the pose. All of the parts are
much foreshortered, but the beautiful outlines are sharply
profiled against the background and indicate the margins of
the planes distinctly. There is scarcely an angle to be
observed. From the waist to the shoulder and from the
shoulder to the neck are nearly two straight lines, and a right
angular mass of shoulder and back where the left shoulder
is profiled against the background.

Note carefully the sagging appearance that the upper leg
has where it rests against the lower one, and the droop of
the left foot over the end of the sofa. The appearance of
weight in different parts of the body is thus represented

ELEMENTS OF FIGURE DRAWING 53

54 ELEMENTS OF FIGURE DRAWING §7

clearly, as wherever the flesh is given an opportunity it sags
into a natural and comfortable position. This is again indi-
cated in the calf of the right leg, where it is flattened by the
weight of the leg above it. The left hip in this pose is made
more than usually prominent owing to the fact that the whole
body is leveled on the lower side on account of the unyield-
ing character of the sofa on which it is posed. In the same
way in Fig. 31 the great prominence of the buttocks is
decreased owing to the fact that the waist is raised slightly
by the pressure of the sofa, on which the figure is posed,
against the abdomen. Compare Fig. 31 with Fig. 28, and
the effect of the pose in Fig. 31 can be readily seen.

These subjects should be carefully studied from all points,
and in making drawings of the full figure the details and
characteristics observable in these photographic represen-
tations shoiild be borne constantly in mind. The student
should avail himself of every opportunity to study from the
figure in whole or in part, and in making drawings and
studies from the draped or costumed figure, should always
endeavor to picture before his mind the general contour of
the lines of the figure beneath the draperies in order that
he may properly understand the causes that contribute to
the various forms.

EFFECT OF THE POSE

36. Before leaving these illustrations compare them as
to artistic merit due entirely to the effect of the pose or
position. They are all made from the same model, and, as
stated before, no model is physically perfect. In Figs. 26,
27, and 28 the defects of this form, due to fashions in dress,
have already been pointed out. Tight lacing has reduced
the waist below what should have been a proper proportion
for a woman of this height and breadth of hips. Similar
causes have thrown the upper portion of the body so far for-
wards that apparently the figure has lost most of the grace-
ful delicacy of line and mass that one is accustomed to
associate with the feminine form. It is evident, therefore,
that attractive as this figure may be as a costume model,

§7

ELEMENTS OF FIGURE DRAWING

56 ELEMENTS OF FIGURE DRAWING §7

serious defects present themselves in using- it as an undraped
classic subject.

All models except those in oriental countries possess these
defects in some degree, and the artist must exercise his skill
in posing his model so as to bring into prominence the
beauties of her figure and at the same time hide the defects.

In Fig. 30 the model is posed so that the upper portion of
the body is in nearly the same position as in Fig. 28, but the
left arm is placed so as to hide the exaggerated hollow of
the back. The weight being thrown on the right buttock
permits the left side to sag somewhat and thus preserve the
subtle curves of the hips.

In Fig. 31 the hollow back is very prominent but the pose
of the figure accounts for it. The body is apparently sup-
ported at the knees and chest, and a sag in the hollow of
the back appears natural. Thus, a pose has been arranged
so that what in truth is a physical defect appears to be the
result of natural conditions.

The same treatment may be observed in Fig. 32, where the
broad hips and narrow waist are made to appear natural owing
to the fact that the figure is lying upon a flat surface and the
shoulders and hips seem pushed above the horizontal line.

THE FEATlTRES OF THE FACE
37. The expression of the eye is almost entirely depend-
ent on the shape of the eyebrow, the lids, and the bone
structure in which it is set. All the varied expressions of
love, pity, fear and grief, indignation and joy are due to the
muscles around the eye and not to any expression of the eye-
ball itself. The words of a well-known artist and teacher, "The
eye has no more expression than an oyster," are true when
we consider the eyeball itself without any accompaniments.
The nose shows considerable character in its formation,
but is only slightly mobile or changeable, being restricted
to the variation in the dilation or size of the nostrils and a
few other trifling muscular movements, such as the raising
of the end in an expression of deep appreciation or disgust.

ELEMENTS OF FIGURE DRAWING

The mouth, with the eye, possesses the greatest range of
mobility and contributes most to the variation of expression
in the face.

The ear and chin are the least mobile of all the features
and depend for their character entirely on their general for-
mation. In constructing the head, the ears are a great help,
as they form a sort of axis on which the head may be said
to turn; their position on each end of this axis establishes
the angle at which the head is seen.

THE EYE

38. The correct drawing of the- human eye is one of the
most difficult problems in figure drawing. The convex shape
of the eyeball enveloped by the lids is full of subtle variety
in perspective, while the spherical shape of the eyeball
proper causes the lids and other details ,

to be somewhat in perspective at all
times, no matter in what position the eye
may be seen.

In general structure the eyeball pro-
trudes from a socket, or orbit, as it is
called, and is enveloped above and below
by the eyelids, as shown in Fig. 33. The
plane of this orbit slopes

inwards as it descends

to the cheek bone, as

shown at a b, Fig. 34,

and makes an angle

with the plane of the

forehead as the latter

recedes from a to d and

also with the plane in

the cheek as that passes forwards, as shown at be. Each

detail of the eye, whether it be opened or closed, tends to

preserve the direction of the plane a />, and the eyeball never

protrudes sufficiently from its socket to disturb the slope.

The upper lid extends beyond and partially covers the upper

portion of the iris, while the iris slopes backwards with the

Fig. 33

ELEMENTS OF FIGURE DRAWING

§7

plane of the orbit. The under lid is thinner than the upper
and forms the base of the plane a b, where it intersects with
the cheek plane.

The eyebrows start either side of the nose just under the
frontal bone and extend outwards and slightly upwards,

*&&?$,Q%~:,

Fig. 35

tapering gradually toward the temple, where the growth
ceases on the outside of the orbit, as shown in Fig. 35.

The convexity of the eyeball determines the curvature of
the eyelids, but this curvature changes with every position
of the head, owing to the foreshortening. In three-quarter
view the upper lid makes a spiral turn that hides its thick-
ness at the outside, as shown at a, Fig. 36, while in looking

Fig. 36 Fig. 3,

downwards the upper lid straightens out and the lower lid
becomes more convex, owing to the fact that the eyeball is
rolled into the lower lid. As the eye is turned downwards
the outer corner descends slightly also, tending to straighten
out the lower lid. When the eye is rolled upwards the con-
vexity of the eyeball is emphatically marked by the upper
lid, as shown in Fig. 37; its breadth is diminished, but its

ELEMENTS OF FIGURE DRAWING

thickness is visible all the way across, while the lower lid
flattens out and forms a compound curve rising from the
inner corner and descending until past the pupil, when it
rises abruptly to the outer corner. With most persons the
upper lid is more convex on the inside than on the outside,
while the lower lid is more convex on the outside. From
the outside of the corner of the eye the upper lid curves
slightly toward the top of the iris, and then descends in a
more or less abrupt curve to the tear gland by the nose;
while the lower curve starts straight from the tear gland,

-4M

Fig. 38

"^-v... •■-.U. -■"'

Fig. 39

descends slowly, and returns in a rather more abrupt curve
against the outer corner of the upper lid, so that lines drawn
through the points of start and finish in the eye will intersect
about as shown in Fig. 38. The eye very rarely composes
itself into two even arcs from corner to corner, as shown in
Fig. 39.

THE NOSE

39. Viewed directly in profile the nose starts beneath
the eyebrows and proceeds at an angle until the tip is
reached. The character expressed by it is mainly influenced
by the bridge, while the terms Roman, straight, aquiline,
and retrousse (turned up) are based on the degrees of con-
vexity or concavity of the line from the brows to the tip.
The upper lip joins the cartilaginous septum, or partition,
between the nostrils at a point about midway between the
extreme tip of the nose and the crease where the wing of
the nostril joins the cheek, Fig. 40. When illuminated by a
strong light, the margins of the shadows definitely describe
and locate the planes that make up the construction of
this feature.

60 ELEMENTS OF FIGURE DRAWING §7

In a full-face view, Fig. 41, the nose has its origin between
and somewhat beneath the brows. At its beginning it is
narrow and increases in width at the bridge; it decreases
where the cartilage is reached at the end of the nasal bone,

but again increases, attaining its greatest width at the tip.
The nose is wedge-shaped from this view, with the edge of
the wedge to the front; the sides slope gradually from the
bridge to the cheeks until the nostrils are reached. The
base of this wedge extends outwards from the general plane
of the face, as the nose is much broader at
the base than at its origin between the brows.
If this point is not well understood, draw-
ings of the nose are likely to look as if the
■^ nose were pressed into the face between the
(J\/xM cheeks. A block form of the nose is shown
\J jn pig-. 42. A sharp crease marks the forma-
FlG" 42 tion of the wing of the nostril at the base

and lessens in prominence as it extends into the cheek. The
greatest width of the nose is at the base across the nostrils.
When the nose is seen on a level with the eye the carti-
laginous septum between the nostrils extends slightly lower
than any other part, Figs. 40 and 41. When viewed from
below, however, the wings appear to be the lowest part, as
in Fig. 43 (b); but viewed from above, the nostrils are

ELEMENTS OF FIGURE DRAWING

completely screened, and the lower part of the tip overhangs
the upper lip, Fig. 44. When the head is thrown well back,

:^fc.

(a)

(b)

Fig. 43

as in Fig. 43, the formation of the nostrils and the inter-
vening' cartilaginous septum can be easily studied. The
unconventionality of these forms
makes definition difficult, and much
practice in drawing them is therefore
very necessary. The convex surface
of the wings and the end of the nose
should be studied in profile, full-front,
and foreshortened views. The shad-
ows on these forms better illustrate
their character than any verbal de-
scription can possibly do.

When seen from below, the bridge
from the brows to the end will lose
greatly in length by foreshortening,
and must therefore be carefully studied in order to avoid
an exaggerated appearance.

62 ELEMENTS OF FIGURE DRAWING §7

THE MOUTH

40. The mouth, like the eye, is one of the most difficult
parts of the face to properly render, inasmuch as its form is
so subtle and so greatly influenced by perspective that con-
stant practice is the only means by which one can success-
fully master its subtle curves. Viewed in profile, Fig. 45,
one can study the general formation of the lips. Note the
steps formed by the intersections of the nose, lips, and chin

• /

Fig. 45 Pig. 46

with the plane of the lips. In the full-front view, Fig. 46,
the upper and lower lips are seen to be concave in their out-
lines from the middle to the corner. In thickness the upper
lip is much more convex than the lower one, Fig. 45, and the
curves unite in a very subtle manner with adjacent curves.
In the full-face view, Fig. 47, the mass about the mouth is
very convex owing to the influence of the teeth. The cor-
ners, therefore, are farther back than the middle and the
concave sides become foreshortened. In the average mouth
the upper lip overhangs the lower lip slightly, and in a direct

ELEMENTS OF FIGURE DRAWING

profile view, Fig. 48, the corners will be found somewhat
lower than the drooping middle portion of the upper lip.
The mucus, or red, portion of the upper lip may be divided
into two planes, a and />, Fig-. 49, while the lower lip pos-
sesses three planes, the middle one c extending each side

Fig. 47

Fig. 48

of the center of the upper lip and the two side ones d
extending into the corners of the mouth. The degree of
curve and fulness in the lips is a matter of individual char-
acter, varying from a distinct bow shape to lips that are so
thin and straight as to be scarcely
more than a straight line across
the face.

The concavity beneath the lower " ^«/
lip is largely influenced by the ful-
ness of the lip itself and the pressure

brought to bear on it by the upper lip. Viewed from the front,
Fig. 47, the depression that divides the upper lip beneath
the nose widens as it descends toward the mouth and marks
the middle of the upper lip. The little concave depression
in the middle of the curve of the upper line of the upper lip

Fig. 49

ELEMENTS OF FIGURE DRAWING

§7

seems to be duplicated in the curve of the lower line of the
upper lip, both curves forming the boundary to the thickness
of the lip at this point. From the middle, the upper lines of
the upper lip curve downwards toward the corners, while the

Fig. 50

Fig. 51

lower lines of the upper lip follow approximately the same
direction and the two meet in the depression at the corner.
In direct front view the degrees of convexity and concavity
in the form of the lips are expressed by the intensity and
shape of the shadow.

In various foreshortened positions in which the mouth is
frequently seen, the lips assume many changes in appear-

ance. It is plain that when observed from a low point of
view, the upper lip will appear at its full thickness, Fig. 50, and
the lower lip will appear thinner than when seen level with
the eye of the observer. When seen from above, Fig. 51,

§7

ELEMENTS OF FIGURE DRAWING

the lower lip will exhibit its full thickness and the upper lip

will appear thinner than when seen on a level with the eye.

In the three-quarter view, Fig. 52, the nearer side of the

Fig. 54

Fig. 55

mouth from the middle to the corner is seen in its full
dimension, losing nothing by foreshortening; the other side,
however, appears much shorter, and in some cases the space
between the middle and the
farther corner will be lost
entirely. A three-quarter view
of the mouth from below,
Fig. 53, is influenced by per-
spective from two quarters,
the point being to the side as
well as below. The curves
from this position, as well as a
three-quarter view from above,
should be carefully studied.

The mouth and eyes com-
bine to give various expres-
sions to the face. When the
lips are parted slightly, as in

Fig. 54, the teeth show within and a half-smiling expression
is given this feature by slightly raising the corner. In front
and three-quarter views the lips lengthen and flatten out

Fie.

6Q ELEMENTS OF FIGURE DRAWING §7

in the act of smiling, as shown in Fig. 55. In Fig. 56
is shown the outline construction of the mouth illustrated
in the previous figure. Note the foreshortened profile line
through the center of the lips and chin. This line is
identical with the profile shown in Fig. 45 except that the
lips are parted.

THE EAR

41. Viewed in profile, with the eye of the beholder
on a level with the ear of the model, the top of the ear
will be about on a level with the eyebrow and the bottom
of the ear will be nearly on the same line as the base of the

Fi<;. 57

nose, although this detail varies in individuals. The ear
occupies a position somewhat back of the center of the head,
and in the classic figure the top of the ear rests on a line
midway between the top of the head and the bottom of the
jaw. The general direction of the ear is slightly at an
angle, the line from its center pointing slightly toward the
chin, as shown in Fig. 57. The form of the ear is decidedly
unconventional, and must be studied carefully to be well
understood. In its numerous concavities and convexities
various shadows are cast, in the location of which lies the
secret of rendering it properly. These shadows indicate
every winding recess of the bowl and every prominence

ELEMENTS OF FIGURE DRAWING

and hollow in the brim. In the front, or three-quarter view,
Fig. 58, the lobe of the ear is closely attached to the head,
but the upper part is much less so, as is readily seen when
the ear is viewed from behind, as in Fig". 59. In Fig. 60, the
ear is shown in full elevation or as it appears when the head
is in profile. The student should locate certain distinguish-

& ■

Fig. 60

ing characteristics of this feature and note their differences
in the different persons that he meets in every-day life.

The ear is very intricate in its formation, and in fore-
shortening of the head the proper placing of this feature
is of the utmost importance. As said before, a line through
the head from one ear to the other forms an axis, so that the
placing of the ear is a sort of key to the action of the head.

Tin; (ii in

42. The bottom of the chin is about one-third the length
of the face below the nose when in profile. The back
part of the head at its lowest extremity is about on a level
with a horizontal line drawn across the head at the base
of the nose. Thus, it will be seen that the front of the head
bears a proportion of three parts 4a. two when compared with
the length of the back of the head, and that this extra third
portion includes the mouth and chin.

Where the head is thrown well back, the back portion of

68 ELEMENTS OF FIGURE DRAWING §7

the head is lowered and the chin raised, and great care must
be exercised in order that their proper relative positions are
preserved. When observed from below, the chin is more
in the foreground than any other part of the face; but when
observed from above, the chin is more in the background
than any other portion of the face. Observance of these
effects is of the utmost importance in rendering these details.

LIMITATIONS TO MOVEMENT

43. In drawing the full-length figure it is of the utmost
importance that every structure should come within the
bounds of possibility. For instance, when viewed from the
back the neck has a limited range of movement beyond
which it cannot turn, and if a drawing represents a head in
one position and the back and shoulders in such relation to
it that it is unnatural, the whole drawing is bound to appear
out of construction. Also, in a drawing of a leg where a
view of the knee, the foot, and the ankle is given, it must
be borne in mind that with various positions of the foot and
ankle, certain corresponding positions of the knee must be
represented, and anything beyond these throws the body out
of construction. When the hand is in pronation, the muscles
of the forearm assume certain prominences, and care must
be taken that these prominences are not shown when the
hand is in supination or in any intermediate position.

Whatever portions of the body are turned by strong action,
they all have a limit to their power of turning, and all the
prominences of the muscles are characteristic of certain
positions. When one draws these details beyond such limi-
tations of possibility, he not only throws his drawing out of
construction but tends toward a line of work known as cari-
caturing, where grotesque forms are produced by the intro-
duction of these excesses. Probably the most prominent
defect of this character is seen in some cheap lines of
illustration where the neck is turned outside of its limit of
movement, and possesses a stiff, unnatural appearance char-
acteristic of the work of the untrained artist.

§7 ELEMENTS OF FIGURE DRAWING 69

It is a common error of beginners to endeavor to draw
everything in outline before any attempt is made at con-
struction or building up. One should take in the whole
model as a large, simple mass and postpone all the details
until the general plan is completed. Erasure should be
avoided as much as possible, and until the general construc-
tion lines are correctly located and drawn, no modeling
should be attempted. The work in cast drawing of block
forms of the hand and head should be borne in mind, as the
simplicity of mass in these details should be fully applied to
drawing from the figure. After the main directions and
proportions are rendered, a careful study of the outlines
can be made, substituting accurate lines of contour for the
simple lines of construction. But, it should be borne in
mind that good work in modeling can never be accomplished
unless the structural form is correct to start with.

While it is bad practice to endeavor to draw figures out of
the mind, it is good practice to draw carefully from life and
then without the aid of either the model or the original
drawing to redraw the figure from memory. This second
drawing can be compared with the life drawing to see where
the memory has failed, thus impressing on the mind certain
details that one is not likely to overlook again.

One should walk slowly around the model and observe
the difference in appearance that the various parts assume
with his change of position. The eye will thus become
accustomed to the appearance of the figure in its common
attitudes and the relation that various forms bear to one
another. When parts of the body are known to be correctly
placed and to occupy the proper amount of space, they
should be drawn carefully in detail, as, for instance, the
ankle and foot or the wrist and hand, and the memory test
should then be applied to these details also. While the
position and proportion of the torso, or trunk of the body,
is of vast importance, the greatest majority of practical
work in figure drawing requires more minute familiarity
with the details of the head, hands, and feet. The rest of
the body is usually covered with clothing, which adheres

70 ELEMENTS OF FIGURE DRAWING §7

more or less closely to the form but is not directly influenced
by muscular prominences and developments. The position
of the arm, however, the folds of the draperies, etc. should
always be closely studied, as in the draped figure these
details take the place of the change of muscular forms that
are found on the nude figure with differences of position.

In most drawings the foot is clothed with a shoe or slip-
per that makes modeling of the individual toes unnecessary,
but the position of the ankle and trend of line from the
lower leg to the foot are all matters of greatest importance,
greater even than the actual modeling of the foot itself.

DRAPERY

44. In the study of drapery the appearance of the folds
and creases is dependent largely on the weight, thickness,
and general texture of the fabric as well as on its age and
the uses to which it has been put. In an old coat sleeve, for
instance, the folds or creases about the elbow will produce,
as a rule, a repetition of themselves when the arm is in the
same position even after it has been changed. This, as
can readily be seen, is due to the repeated foldings in the
same place. But, in fresh cloths the folds will arrange
themselves differently even though the cloth is placed
approximately in the same position that it was in before.
The study of drapery is therefore important in order to
observe the general directions of the folds under certain
conditions and the representation of the texture of the
material by the characteristics of the folds as well as by its
light and shade. Heavy fabrics will hang in larger folds
than lighter ones and these will be blunter at the angles.
Generally, however, there is a sort of anatomy to the fold
that gives it a definite structure common to all fabrics under
similar conditions.

In the case of an ordinary coat sleeve, which is practically
a cylinder of cloth with an arm inside, the general trend and
direction of the folds at the elbow will be practically the
same in most cases even though the fabric be new, whereas

§7 ELEMENTS OF FIGURE DRAWING 71

in a broad and loose sleeve, usually termed the Bishop sleeve,
a more extensive range is likely to be observed and no set
characteristics can be determined. In the same way, any
tight-fitting garment will fall naturally into repetition of old
creases. A tight-fitting pair of trousers will crease in much
the same way each time the knee is bent, whereas Zouave
or bloomer trousers will display a great variety in the folds.
It is a study of this variety of creases that gives character
to the goods and the garment. Old clothes will naturally
possess numerous creases; new clothes but few.

In the cases of silk and satin the gloss and smoothness
of the material causes it to catch the light and add another
complication to the appearance of these folds. The reflec-
tion of light from one brilliant surface to one that is prac-
tically in shadow renders the shadow more transparent, and
detail in the shadows much more clearly defined than with
goods that do not reflect the light. Again, in semitrans-
parent fabrics, such as cheese cloth and veilings, the effect
of drapery is very complex as the light is seen shining
through one thickness, giving it a transparent effect, but
beyond this it appears opaque owing to the fact that one or
two thicknesses lie so close to some solid material that the
light passes no farther.

After practice, one will find it much more simple to
remember the form, characteristics, and construction of
the face and figure, than of the folds and creases of
various drapery.

In opaque fabrics, such as woolens, the laws of light and
shade are not influenced by the gloss or reflections from
shiny surfaces, and the appearance of these goods is brought
out by the modeling, in the same manner that one models
the shadows on the human figure. All the convex portions
of the folds receive high light, and the shadows cast from
them on the concave portions are very dark. These numer-
ous complications make it necessary to work always from
the draped figure or model when rendering draperies, as the
true characteristics cannot be expressed from mental con-
ceptions until one has had great experience in this direction.

72 ELEMENTS OF FIGURE DRAWING §7

In Figs. 61, 62, and 63 are shown reproductions of Mr.
Sargent's mural painting in the Boston Public Library,
which is well worth attention as a study of drapery.

In the arrangement of this on the walls the section repro-
duced in Fig. 61 extends across the end of a corridor, with
Fig. 62 on the left and Fig. 63 on the right side wall.
Taken as a whole, the decoration is of importance to the
student not only on account of its presentation of drapery
suggestions but for the composition, from an art standpoint,
illustrating the use of light and dark masses in order to
properly balance the several sections. Each of the figures in
this frieze presents a study of the characteristics of drapery.
These draperies may be divided into three general classes:
first, where the entire subject is •light in color; second,
where it is dark in color; and third, where the drapery
consists of a combination of light and dark colored goods.

In rendering drapery, the same rules may be applied that
have been used in drawing various parts of the figure. The
main lines that establish the large masses are studied and
expressed on paper with no attempt at accurate drawing.
Over this the details are carefully worked up to such a
degree of finish as may be required without attempt to
destroy the large masses that have been originally blocked.
Simplicity of rendering is evident in all of these ' figures.
Special note should be taken of the long, sweeping lines that
make up the figure of Hosea. The folds of the drapery are
expressed by simple planes of shade, while the lines of the
figure, both on the outside and within the mass, are handled
with the utmost freedom. The crumpled folds around the
bent arm are carefully contrasted with the simple, broad
masses of the mantle as it falls from the clenched hand.
The planes of shadow are well defined without being harsh.
The margins of the shadows here have been closely searched
and the relative values of the different masses of shade
carefully estimated. Unless this be true and each had its
proper value, extremes of light and dark would be likely to
exist that would give a crudeness and stiffness to the
garment that is not here apparent.

THE NEW YORK
PUBLIC LIBRARY

ASTOR, LENOX AND
TILDEN FOUNDATIONS

1 1

TflE MS'* ¥0RK„V
PUBLIC UBKAOT

pv-OX AND

ELEMENTS OF FIGURE DRAWING

ELEMENTS OF FIGURE DRAWING $7

§7 ELEMENTS OF FIGURE DRAWING 75

This drapery has been modeled practically in three tones —
light, half tone, and shadow. The half tone is not very deep,
and small accents of a dark tone have been occasionally
introduced to give emphasis to the deeper folds. Note that
all these shadows have a defined form and that when that
defined form is properly drawn it is comparatively easy to
determine the depth of tone that each separate shadow
plane should present.

In the figure of Ezekiel, we have a similar rendering.
The half tones here have a more defined form than in the
drapery of Hosea. The little triangle of shadow toward the
bottom of the garment, and the sharp, arrow-pointed shadow-
on the right arm are well defined in outline and give char-
acter and expression to the folds of the cloth about them.
The deeper shadows are even more sharply defined, and
if one looks at the figure with partially closed eyes
these forms may clearly be observed, and the deepest
shadows studied with great ease. Although it is true that
shadows possess a definite outline, there are many places
throughout the figures where this definition is almost entirely
lost. The shadows blend so completely with the light that
it is almost impossible to determine where one ends and the
other commences. This is necessary to depict the softness
of the garments, for if the shadows were all well-defined
forms, a stiff, metalliclike appearance would be given to the
texture, and if the shadows were all soft the garment would
appear characterless and vaporlike. It is the due appre-
ciation of these definite and indefinite shadow forms which
gives a drapery those appearances that characterize it as a
particular fabric.

In the figure of Jeremiah, the interest is centered more in
its association with the accompanying figures than in the
individual character of its drapery. The modeling of the
mantle is exceedingly simple — confined almost entirely to a
main tone of pure white with suggestions of shadows where
the folds and creases are formed. A mass of shadows at
the base of the garment explains rather indefinitely the
arrangement and fall of the main folds. Here the head has

76 ELEMENTS OF FIGURE DRAWING §7

been rendered in a darker tone, and the figure of Jonah
behind it throws into prominence the light tones of Jere-
miah's garments and gives a brilliancy to them that is still
further emphasized by the neighboring figure of Isaiah.

The figure of Isaiah is typical of the rendering of dark
drapery as expressed in this group. The interest of the
figure itself is centered more in the general mass than in
any details of drapery. It would naturally appear that light-
and-shade values cannot be made as striking in black drapery
as in white drapery. In the latter, expression is given to
the texture by the rendering of the half tones and shadows,
while with dark drapery the whole mass is expressed in the
deepest tone and the high lights emphasized to give depth
to the folds. In this example the light plays upon the
mantle in four places — just below the throat, on the hanging
folds from the left arm, thence .upon the folds across the
breast, and in a thin streak down the folds from the right
arm. In studying light drapery we look for the plane of
shadow; in studying dark drapery we look for the planes
of light. The weight and texture of the garment is
expressed by the character of the folds and the lines of its
general mass. The outline at the left is almost perpendicu-
lar from the elbow to the ankle, and on the right the line is
slightly oblique, falling from the right elbow to the floor just
inside of the foot. The feet are expressed in a dark half
tone to prevent their forming white spots that would detract
the eye from the general mass. Had it been desired to
express this fabric as being lighter and more flimsy in
weight, the folds would have been smaller and more numer-
ous and the general outline more broken.

In the figures of Zephaniah and Joel we have two other
renderings of dark drapery, although this drapery is not as
dark as that of Isaiah. The lights and shades here are far
less brilliant than those on the figures draped in pure
white or deep black. Only the deepest shadows are
expressed in black, while the general half tone of the
garment is expressive of the tone value of the goods. The
shadows are well defined, but lack crispness in quality, as

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^T T ^T"TTRE DRAWING 77

there is less difference in tone between the lights and shades
than in the previous examples. In the pose of Joel the
head is almost entirely obscured in the heavy mantle, thus
giving- to it a mysterious interest. One wonders what would
be the appearance of the prophet's face were the mantle
raised, while the wedge-shaped opening of the breast and
the high light falling on the neck makes a white spot that
groups well with the head of Zephaniah, arms and shoulders
of Obadiah, and the solemn white figure of Hosea.

In the figure of Daniel we have a combination of both
light and dark draperies. The white mantle is apparently
of more flimsy material than that upon the neighboring
figure of Ezekiel, which hangs in straight folds from the
chest to the feet, minor draperies and folds being expressed
where it hangs over the wrist. The head-piece, of similar
texture but darker, contrasts well with it and expresses its
texture by a few sharp accentuations of shadow expressing
its careless arrangement about the shoulders. Each of these
figures is worthy of study in the modeling of details required
to express difference in garment, in weight, color, and tone.

Note how the black-and-white garments of Micah are
vigorously rendered, the lower garment being in mass with
few folds expressed, while the upper portion in white lies in
heavy folds about the shoulders expressed by means of a
few masses of shade placed on the under side of the creases.
Although the garment and the flesh as exposed on the left
breast are practically equal in tone, the difference in color
and texture is readily appreciated by the skilful handling of
the shadows and bold delineation of the extreme high lights.

45. The greatest example of moving drapery in all art
is found in the Greek statue called "The Victory of Samo-
thrace," shown in Fig. 64. The artist or sculptor has shown
beneath the falling draperies the vigorous contours of superb
womanhood. There can be no doubt that he had a model
for the figure itself, but the clinging, whirling draperies
characteristic of action could be the result of nothing short
of patient study and keen appreciation of the appearance of

78 ELEMENTS OF FIGURE DRAWING §7

light fabrics on a rapidly moving figure or one affected by
high wind. This requires an appreciation extremely keen
and a memory that can produce an effect in folds that the
eye is not quick enough to see. One can readily understand
that it would be impossible to work from moving drapery,
as the multitude of changes would render it impossible lo
record any one condition, but in painting, drawing, and
sculpture the appearance of moving drapery can be effected
by recalling to the mind the impression of this multitude of
flitting shadows that one sees when drapery is in motion.

In Fig. 65 is a reproduction of a well-known painting by
the artist Asti, and should be studied with relation both to
its composition and the rendering of its drapery. The del-
icate outline of the features is clearly profiled against the
dark mass of hair falling about the shoulders. The play of
light and shade upon the hair gives it a loose, free appear-
ance, characteristic of its soft, crinkly nature. The pose is
dignified and well balanced, the head in full profile, and the
body in three-quarter view. The positions of the nipples
illustrate clearly the angles at which the breasts are placed,
the right being in full profile and the left in full front view\
The angle at the waist line above the left wrist indicates
that the figure rests firmly upon the left leg, and the beauti-
ful modeling of the left arm is clearly profiled against the
hair as it falls over this side. Throughout this entire figure
the modeling is light and delicate, the arrangement of the
hair being particularly noticeable in order to give luminosity
and realness to the body. The drapery sagging from the
waist in heavy folds shows that it is of heavy goods, and
apparently has slid from the figure from its own weight.
The surface of this drapery is mottled in appearance, indica-
ting that it is a figured goods, but no definition is given to
the figure itself, as this is a matter of no importance.

ST ELEMENTS OF FIGURE DRAWING 79

Fig. ar>

80 ELEMENTS OF FIGURE DRAWING

COMPOSITION

46. In drawing the human figure for an illustration or
design, the composition is the first detail that should be
considered. The first requisite of composition is the mental
conception of the scene that is to be depicted; a rough
expression of this subject can then be rapidly sketched with-
out a model, giving approximately the position and action
of the figures and a definite idea of what are to be the main
details of the background. When this rough sketch or work-
ing scheme is about satisfactory, the making of the illustra-
tion itself can be proceeded with by posing the models as
nearly as possible in the attitude of the first sketch and then
working directly from the live subjects. The mental idea
of the character of the figures that were intended in the
original sketch should be preserved, notwithstanding the
differences there may be between them and the models.

The model is simply a link between the real and the ideal.
We work from the model in order that the drawing may be
correct and that the construction may be good, but there is
no law of art that hinders one from improving on the model
so as to bring the finished drawing up to his ideal. -The use
of a model for illustration does not necessitate the making
of a portrait, and in some cases it may be advisable to have
several models from which to work out parts of the same
figure, while in other cases one model can pose for several
figures depending, of course, on the importance of the
conditions.

When the figures have all been drawn in, the background
and accessories should be carefully worked up, but care
should be taken that the background is worked sharply to
the outlines of the figures but never encroaching on them.
Close attention to the consideration of perspective is impera-
tive, as there is always a general tendency to make the fore-
ground detail too small, thereby destroying all effects of depth.

47. In illustration work it is always best to bring the
drawing out to a definite outline and include it within a

§7 ELEMENTS OF FIGURE DRAWING 81

rectangle or other geometrical form, rather than to vignette
it or cause it to fade into the color of the paper toward the
edges. There are cases where an individual figure, some-
what of a portrait so to speak, may be treated in the latter
way, but accessories and details should be omitted in such
a case.

48. Never feel the slightest hesitation in drawing figures
back of figures or details back of other details. Timidity
often arises from those working with the fear that the effect
will be to merge the background into the foreground or vice
versa, but there is no occasion to worry over this, as it is the
mind and not the eye that takes in the composition and sepa-
rates the background from the foreground and the middle
distance from the distance. The artist confines himself to
representing the various parts as they would appear in their
various positions, and the eye accepts this representation
while the mind interprets it as the artist intended it should
be. The artist never attempts to tell the whole story in
detail in an illustration. Something must be left to the
imagination, and for that reason distant objects are but
hazily represented, and the attention is concentrated on the
principal figure in the picture without anything to detract
from it. It is not necessary always that the entire figure
should be shown, as the portion of a figure appearing from
behind another figure or some other detail excites the curi-
osity and produces a reality and an interest that the presenta-
tion of the entire figure would not possess.

49. Care should be taken in illustration not to use
extremes of color, as if in finishing up necessity is found
for the introduction of strong lights and shadows in a few
places, the whole composition is rendered in such extremes
that higher lights or deeper shadows cannot be rendered.
The center of interest in a pictare should catch the eye at
once, but it need not necessarily be in the foreground. It
may be centered in some details in the middle distance or
the background, and the whole foreground, elaborate though
it may be, can be treated as an accessory. In such a case

82 ELEMENTS OF FIGURE DRAWING §7

the foreground, although receiving its full value as to size,
modeling, and color, is made secondary by the action being
placed in the middle distance or background.

The action in the middle distance or background is fre-
quently intensified by the foreground figures being intro-
duced as witnesses of it. By this device the observer is
directed to the center of interest by the attitude of the fore-
ground figures in the picture.

50. In depicting some action that is practically impos-
sible for the model to assume, such as running, jumping,
wrestling, etc., it will be necessary to depend entirely on
one's knowledge of construction. A running figure is much
easier to depict when draped than when undraped, as the
drapery assumes planes and folds that are characteristic of
the action and which change their position so rapidly under
the influences of the action that the eye is not accustomed
to seeing them with any degree of exactness. In the
undraped figure, however, it is necessary that the muscles,
which through their action change all curves and contours
of the body, should be properly expressed, and that fulness
of the members should not be misplaced.

For composition work one must have a strong mental
vision of just exactly what he wishes to express, and the
ability to properly express such parts of it as cannot be
taken from a model, as well as those parts that can be posed.

DRAWING FROM THE FIGURE

INTRODUCTION

1. The student having studied the details and character-
istics of each feature of the human figure, will now put to
practical use the information thus acquired by rendering a
series of drawing plates for criticism, in order to acquire a
working knowledge of figure drawing. It must be borne in
mind, however, that the mere copying of drawings is a poor
method of learning the characteristics of the figure. The
student should therefore work as much as possible from
the actual model, sketching from the human figure, either
draped or undraped, every time an opportunity arises.

The following thirteen drawing plates are reproduced
from the work of students in the Art Scudents' League, at
New York, and, as they are prize drawings, may be con-
sidered as standard examples, having been selected as the
most representative work of the class. Thus, the student has
before him the best material from which to work and at the
same time material that is not beyond his abilities, as the
originals were the work of students who had to struggle with
the same problems as the student pursuing this work.

As the female figure is used more in decorative work than
the male, it is given rather more prominence in this series
of plates, although in practical work a model should be
selected to suit the individual requirements.

Although the student is herein directed to draw from these
plates as though he had the living model before him, he
should embrace every opportunity to make sketches from life
and put into practice the instruction given.

For notice of copyright, see page immediately following the title page
28

DRAWING FROM THE FIGURE

DRAWING PLATES

PLATE I

2. To draw Plate I, pin the paper to the drawing board
and mark off, approximately, the length the figure is to be,
between the border lines, or about 17 inches. The figure
must fill exactly this space, for reasons explained in Elements
of Figure Drawing.

For first laying in, approximately divide this height into
eight parts in order to locate the different members of the
body. General, rough lines should then be drawn in similar
to Plate I, without any attempt to finish any part, but merely
to secure the general sketching of the figure. Rough and
careless as this may appear, each line can be placed only
after careful study as to its direction and purpose.

Owing to the figure having been placed above the eye, the
first one-eighth division below the top of the panel will fall
considerably below the chin, and as the head is thrown well
backwards and the chin is much above the normal line of the
first head-length, the shoulders appear high and the first
head-line falls very little above the shoulders. The second,
third, and fourth lines, however, fall approximately correct,
as will those below, the eighth one passing approximately
through the toes of the right foot. In this plate the general
action and swing of the body is expressed and no attempt
has been made to give any definite character to the form
or the line. The weight is expressed as being strongly
thrown on the right leg and foot, thus giving the right hip
considerable prominence, while the lines of the left side are
comparatively straight from the armpit to the inside of the
knee. The median line down the front of the body is barely
discernible, and about it are built the masses that constitute
the two sides.

FIGURE DRAWING-PLATE I

INTERNATIONAL CORRESPONDENT E SCHOOLS SCRANTON, PA. — 392

Drawn by Mklvin Nichols

Printed in the United Stati i. Copy right, 190 . by International Textbook Compani
Ent red -n Stationer* Hall, !.,,„, I,,,,. At right* reserved.

THE NEW YORK
PUBLIC LIBRARY

ASTOK, LENOX AND
-ILDEN FOUNDATIONS

« L

§8 DRAWING FROM THE FIGURE 3

These structural lines are very faint and difficult to trace,
yet are sufficiently characteristic to express the action and
are considered an excellent start toward a complete drawing.
The faint suggestions of lines indicate the width of the
shoulders and the length of the arms. The relative position
of the hands and hips, and all the main dimensions, are thus
indicated without carrying the work forwards to defined con-
tours. The only portion of this figure that is at all carried
toward completion is the head, and this is modeled in the
most simple manner.

Having divided the head so as to place the features in
their proper situations, carefully outline the forms of the
brows and eyes and sketch in the foreshortened nose and
mouth, paying particular attention to the instructions that
have been given as to the appearance of these features in
foreshortening. The lines of the shadows should then be
carefully rendered, and an even, flat tone laid over the
shadows and hair in order to better express these portions.
No attempt should be made here for variety of light and
shade. The shadows on the upper lip and over the eyes
can probably best be expressed by applying a little powdered
crayon with the point of the small paper stomp; the margin
of the shadow as it blends off to the cheek may be evened
off by light touches of the stomp. The hair is best left as a
mass of shadow, without any attempt at detail.

This is, in general, a broad drawing, and no attempt at
completed detail should be made, as the drawing will thereby
fail to fulfil its purpose. In using the stomp do not rub it
on the paper, but blend the shadows by light, gentle touches
at the point, each touch taking from or applying to the
paper a small amount of crayon. Rubbing will produce
muddy and unsatisfactory shadows, and the endeavor should
ever be to keep the shadows transparent and of a soft and
interesting character. The whole secret of the solidity of
the modeling in this head lies in the very close observance
of the margins of the shadows, even though the shadows
are kept down to one tone, as variety of tone is not here
demanded.

4 DRAWING FROM THE FIGURE $8

The effort in this drawing plate should be to secure action
//ith the fewest possible lines, but do not attempt to put into
practice facts or theories that have previously been learned,
as opportunity to do that will come later. After rendering'
the form in this simple manner and simply suggesting the
shadows on the face, spray the drawing with fixative, insert
name, date, and class letter and number in their usual places,
and send the plate in for criticism.

PLATE II

3. In this plate lay out the drawing as before, carry it to
a more completed outline, and attempt somewhat to model
the parts with a free use of the crayon and a sparing
use of the stomp. The crayon should be rather sharp at
first, although no attempt should be made to render the
general lines with pencil-like fineness. The length of the
panel, 17 inches, should be divided into eight equal parts,
the upper one containing the head from the crown to the
chin, the lower one marking the limit of the toes. The
figure is somewhat less than eight heads in height, but
appears tall on account of its height above the eye. The
head, however, is not thrown so far back as in the previous
case, and although the under side of the brows and nose as
well as the chin are distinctly visible, none of these features
become as foreshortened as those in Plate I.

The figure is turned somewhat away from the eye, and
the weight, though thrown on the right leg as before, causes
the body to sag somewhat so that the breasts are not on the
same line. The figure being of a rather thin person shows
the prominences and depressions rather clearly; the lines
are angular and in no place show the full curves of maturity
and therefore forms a good subject for study. In locating
points of prominence, attention is called to the shoulders,
the elbows, the prominence in the upper part of the hips,
the knees, and the heels. Broad, sweeping lines lightly
drawn should connect these points when properly located.
The general head-lengths will indicate approximately only
the general positions of the breasts, navel, and pubes.

FIGURE DRAWING-PLATE II

INTERNATIONAL CORRESPONDENCE SCHOOLS, SCRANTON, PA.— 393

■

in by Chas. A. Phi

Enti i ■ d at Station

I rlj In I90S, by
Hall, London.

al Textbook Company.
n erved

THE NEW YORK
PUBLIC LIBRARY

FIGURE DRAWING-PLATE III

INTERNATIONAL CORRESPONDENCE SCHOOLS, SCRAXTON, PA.— 394

«► •''

Prawn by Melvin Nichols

Printed in the United States. Copyright, 1903, hy Iut> rn itional Textbook Cotnp my.
E **sred "t Stationers' Hall, London. Mi rights reserved.

THE JffCW YORK

PUBLIC LIBRARY

/STOft.LEKox^Vr.
TILD£W FOUNDATIONS

§8 DRAWING FROM THE FIGURE 5

Observe that while none of the lines in this figure are
absolutely straight, none possess a continuous curve. The
model's left shoulder starts nearly horizontally across
the chest, but the horizontal line marking the line of the
collar bone is depressed at each end and high in the middle.
The opposite shoulder is composed of a series of flattened
curves that disappear behind the upturned arm, and from the
shoulder to the neck a series of curves prevents the general
contour from appearing stiff and monotonous. Do not
attempt to run one set of lines into another, but rather
let them join in flattened angles that may afterwards be
rounded into graceful curves.

In modeling this figure lean to the lightest of flat tints.
Commence with the head, and carefully render the hair, the
shade under the eyes, nose, and upper lip in a light, even
tone, and indicate the shadow cast on the neck, under the
lower lip, and on the left cheek. The shadow may be
deepened in some places by an additional touch of the crayon
where emphasis is required, or by a delicate'; manipulation of
the stomp. Do not use the stomp, however, where the
effect can be obtained without it. About the eyes and in
the recesses of the hair this, instrument may be necessary,
but in open spaces light touches of the crayon pencil will give
better results. The shadows on the side of the trunk and
under the breasts should be rendered with the crayon,
touched so lightly to the paper as to barely leave a mark.
The modeling of the entire figure should be suggested,
rather than finished.

The points to be particularly noted in the rendering are
the depression in the left kneecap, the ankle bone, and the
position in which the model is posed so that it throws the
weight of the body forwards and causes a prominence of
the muscle in the right thigh as well as a certain fulness in
the shin. The backward pressure of the left leg calls the
thigh muscles into action; first, just above the knee, where
most of the strain comes, and after, farther up on the inside
of the leg. The calf of the left leg is rounded and full — also
suggestive of this pressure — and the entire trend of the

6 DRAWING FROM THE FIGURE §8

modeling should be to express this action with the fewest
possible lines. Here the right foot is seen in profile, and
the left foot is sharply foreshortened and nearly on a level
with the eye.

After completing this modeling, spray it, and insert name,
date, etc. in their usual places; then send the plate in for
correction.

PLATE III

4. In Plate III, the modeling is carried to a somewhat
more completed condition than in the previous example.
The details of the face have been softened one into the
other by means of the point of the stomp, touched lightly
here and there to remove the darker color and to blend off
the lighter shade where the planes of shadow fade into one
another. The hair, although indicated in masses, possesses
no detail, but a few strongly placed shadows assist in bring-
ing its main features into prominence. The position of the
arms throws the shoulders rather squarely across, and the
clasped hands cause the muscles of the forearm to swell into
prominence near the elbow. The raising of the shoulders
in this position also draws out the waist and causes a hollow
appearance at the elbows, while the weight of the body on
the right leg throws the pelvis on that side in a higher posi-
tion, showing a prominence of the bone above on a level
with the navel and a prominence of the thigh muscle imme-
diately below it. The fulness from the thigh to the knee is
caused by the strain on the right leg; also, the fulness of
the shin muscle, as in the last figure. Here the kneecaps
and knee joint are clearly defined, and- in the outside of the
left leg there is a depression above the kneecap similar to
that referred to in the previous figure.

These points must be taken in and considered before the
first laying in is attempted, and the figure carefully modeled
to form by a series of light but broad lines indicating the
general planes of shade. Be careful, in doing this, not to
encroach on the planes of light, which must be left clear, no
attempt being made to blend them off very delicately. The

FIGURE DRAWING-PLATE IV

INTERNATIONAL CORRESPOND] NCE SCHOOLS, SCRANTON, PA. — 39ii

4 k

Drawn bj Mklvin Nichols

Printed in the United States. Copyright, 1903, by International Textbook Company.
Entered at Stationers' Hall, London All. rights reserved.

§8 DRAWING FROM THE FIGURE 7

planes of shadow on the outsides of the arms express the
muscles drawn into action, and the deep shadows under
the clasped hands and the elbows cause the body to appear
to recede at that point and give it the proper roundness and
other characteristics.

This plate, after being- carefully drawn according- to instruc-
tions, should be sprayed with fixative; then the student's
name, the date, and class letter and number should be inserted
in their usual places, and the work sent in for correction.

PLATE IV

5. In this figure the pose is selected to show the beau-
tiful curve in the back, as well as the profile of the breast
and the upper portion of the body. The general direction
of the left leg gives the line of support and we have the
relative points of prominence in this member as seen from
behind to compare with the relative^points of prominence
studied in connection with the previous plates. The outside
of the thigh in the right leg is slightly convex, while the
corresponding line on the inside of the thigh has a tendency
to be concave. The positions of the feet govern the appear-
ance and points of prominence of the leg. In the left leg
the foot rests at an angle, but in the right leg the foot is
turned in profile and is flat on the floor, thus changing the
contours accordingly. From the back of the neck to the
hollow of the back is an even, graceful, convex curve. At
the back it becomes concave and swells again to the thigh.
The left arm, extending to the ring that is grasped by the
hand, exhibits some of its muscles in prominence. Here the
triceps swell out to form a tangential union with the curve
from the back of the neck to the back of the body. The
muscles of the forearm are necessarily prominent, owing to
the weight that is thrown on the wrist. The fulness of the
chest is shown above the left breast, and a nearly straight line
extends from the under side of the right breast to the navel.

In modeling, all the shadows in the upper part of this
figure should be first expressed with lines, graded afterwards

8 DRAWING FROM THE FIGURE §8

with the stomp and worked over again in lines with the
crayon point to give transparency. The right hand appears
over the top of the head, the entire arm being lost on the
other side of the figure.

Great care must be exercised in drawing the lines of the
neck in this figure in order not to present a distorted or
unnatural appearance. The figure is posed above the eye,
so that the under side of the chin and tip of the nose are
barely visible. The head is turned so far away that the
socket of the eye is scarcely expressed. The endeavor of
the student in rendering this figure should be to express the
head with a few masses of light and shadow, rather than by
outlining in detail. The deepest shadows are under the left
breast and in the hollow of the back, but rapidly blend off
into the middle tone.

On this plate we have the first suggestion of delicate
modeling, but no attempt should be made to carry the
modeling farther than indicated on this drawing plate. We
are still working for outlines of mass, and farther than this
the work should not be carried.

After completing this drawing, it should be carefully
sprayed with fixative; then insert the name, date, and class
letter and number in their usual places, and send the plate
in for correction.

PLATE V

6. In this plate we have a good example of a completely
modeled figure. The outlines are cleanly cut, the shadows
are softly blended, and the whole drawing is rendered to
give a finished effect of light and shade as it existed in the
original. Note, however, that no matter how dark the
deepest shadows may appear, they possess a transparency
free from all muddiness.

The body rests as before on the right leg, throwing the
right hip somewhat above its normal position. The back of
the right hand rests above the hip, causing a depression
of the flesh at this point, and the line of the upper portion of
the body should be nearly straight from the arm to the

FIGURE DRAWING-PLATE V

INTERNATIONAL CORRESPONDENCE SCHOOLS, SCRANTON, PA. — 396

Drawn by Cha9. A. Pclciphr

grinted in the United States. Copyright, t90S by International Textbook I
Entered at Stationers Hall, London. M rights reserved.

§8 DRAWING FROM THE FIGURE 9

intersection of the wrist and the waist. This line is not
straight, however; it is concave at the beginning and ending
and convex in the middle, because of the prominence of the
muscles of the back. The muscles of the forearm are rather
full, but neither the upper arm nor the forearm are perfectly
straight but are slightly curved. The convexity of the upper
arm and the concave sides of the inside of the arm consist of
a number of delicate curves and not one even curve.

Note carefully the lines bounding the planes of shadow
down the entire right side of the body, and that these planes
fade into the high light on the front of the abdomen. The
accented shadow under the breast outlines this feature, while
the opposite breast is crushed into the forearm, causing a
depression in the left forearm from the wrist half way to the
elbow. This must be carefully rendered in order to prevent
a distorted appearance in the left arm.

The line from the intersection of the body with the left
arm to the prominence of the thigh, appears at first to be
composed of two concave curves with one convex curve
between them. Careful study, however, will show that
between the convexity of the abdomen and the prominence
of the thigh, the line is rather convex and not flat. The knee
on the right leg is sharply defined, and the fulness back of
the knee is decidedly prominent. The right leg is in full
front view, showing the points of prominence on the inside
and outside of the calf, the fulness of the ankle bone, and
the general trend to concavity from the pubes to the ankle
bone caused by the curvature of the bones in this member.

The modeling on this plate is completed almost entirely
by the use of the stomp. The shadows, being generally
placed and their planes well defined, should be blended off
softly into the high lights by gentle touches with the end of
the stomp, the deeper shadows being added and worked in
with the smaller stomp where required. Where the contours
of the muscles are to be emphasized — as in the knuckle,
under side of the right arm, and about the knees — careful
touches of the crayon-charged stomp will express the planes
and can afterwards be flattened off into the surrounding

10 DRAWING FROM THE FIGURE §8

planes where required. Close study must be given to the
face in order to locate satisfactorily the foreshortened fea-
tures and the planes of shadow that express them. It is not
important, however, that the student should be able to work
these details up as carefully as those on the original plate,
as drawings from the face can readily be made from the
living model, and it is better to study these features from life.

PLATE VI

7. In this plate we have the smooth, unbroken outlines
characteristic of the female figure. The oval-shaped head
thrown somewhat forwards, so that the under side of the
nose is lost, permits us to study the features under condi-
tions that have heretofore been described. Note that the
top of the head is plainly visible here, although the figure
is posed high in comparison with the level of the eye. The
right arm leaning against the hip is concave in its outer line,
although the concavity is expressed by a series of convex
curves. A line drawn through the center of the arm from
the shoulder to the elbow and from the elbow to the wrist,
will form two nearly equal concave curves about which the
contours of the arm can be expressed. A median line drawn
from the pit of the throat to the center of the body, to the
pubes, and thence straight to the center of the heel of the
right foot, will form the line of support. About this line
the right leg can be constructed, from the pubes to the knee
being nearly straight, whereas from the outside of the knee
the thigh swells rapidly in a convex curve and again recedes
to meet the waist line.

The general line from the armpit to the knee on the left
side of the figure is nearly straight, but composed of a
series of convex and concave curves, which combine to give
variety and prevent monotony. The left leg being thrown
somewhat backwards is foreshortened from the knee to the
heel, whereas the weight of the body resting on the right
leg gives prominence to the right hip. Few muscles are
brought into prominence with the figure in this position,

FIGURE DRAWING PLATE VI

INTERNATIONAL CORRESPONDENCK SCHOOLS. SCRANTON, PA. — 397

■■"■'"■ I

* J*

Drawn by Wm. B. Gilbert

Printed in the United States. Copyright, (903, 6» International Textbook Company.
Entered at Stationers' Halt, London. Alt rii/hts reserved.

THE NEW YORK
PUBLIC LIBRARY

ASTOR, LENOX AND
TILDEN FOUNDATIONS

riuunc unHVVMNU^rLMi e: vii

INTERNATIONAL CORRESPONDENCE SCHOOLS, SCRANTON, PA.— 398

Drawn by Mblvin Nichols

^ Ttf£ NEW YOXv

PUB"c ljbTaIy

§8 DRAWING FROM THE FIGURE 11

except on the left shoulder and over the left breast. The
shoulder muscle causes a depression between the neck and
the arm itself, whereas on the right side the shoulder slopes
off to the upper arm.

This figure is completed by carefully modeling with the
stomp, and every effort should be made to give the shadows
just that accentuation that would cause them to express
roundness and depth of the individual parts in their proper
places. The comparative size of the thigh and calf in the
female figure is well illustrated in this drawing. Careful
study will show the influence of these points of prominence
in the draped figure.

PLATE VII

8. Here we are shown the general appearance of the
male figure when viewed from behind. The shadows are
strongly marked, showing the prominence of the shoulder
blades and the relative positions of the elbows and waist
line as pointed out in previous photographic illustrations.
Note the depressions just above the buttocks on each side
of the spine, and also the general direction and curve of the
spine, as expressed by a series of varying shadows. This
drawing should be rendered only as far as shown in order
that the student may express his familiarity with the details
of prominence as seen in this view, the modeling being of
no importance at present. The work may be carried farther
and modeled at some future time.

This figure being rather thin, the points of bony prom-
inence are readily seen. The left elbow is clearly indicated
by a plane of shadow and high light in the center of the
arm, while the right elbow is brought into prominence by
means of the position of the arm. The bony construction
of the hips beneath the flesh is shown by the fulness on the
right side of the figure above the buttocks, and the curve
from this point to the broadest point of the hips and thence
to the back of the knee is plainly indicated. It can be
easily studied here how the line of the waist is affected by
the position of the hip and the amount of fat thereon.

12 DRAWING FROM THE FIGURE §8

In this figure the weight is thrown on the right foot, as
was the case in Plate VI, but the curve in the waist line
here is much flatter than was the case on Plate VI, owing to
the fact that in this example there is less flesh on the hips
and consequently the line is straighten It can readily be
seen that, were the hips fuller, the fleshy portion would tend
to cause them to appear higher and thereby emphasize this
curve at the waist.

PLATE VIII

9. In this plate we have the male figure posed in such a
manner that it brings the principal muscles of the upper por-
tion of the body into prominence. This light, graceful figure
is an admirable one for study, as the sweeping lines are not
cut by excessive muscular development nor rounded off by
fatty tissue. The median line from the pit of the throat to
the navel is clearly marked and is of the greatest assistance
in drawing, inasmuch as one can build about it the relative
proportions of the figure. The use of the plumb-line will be
of great value, as many points of prominence fall directly
beneath other points. The lines of the shoulders and muscles
of the arm are well developed and clean cut, and the, model-
ing for the arms and legs need be but suggested in order to
convey the most complete idea. Note the delicate modeling
of the hip bones, the bony and muscular structures showing
through the flesh.

The entire outline is made up of short, straight lines, as
for instance in the right arm, from where it joins the shoulder
to the inside of the elbow; and in the forearm, where the
inside contour is composed of a series of short, broken,
straight lines. Observe, too, the general curvature of the
right leg, throwing the right foot well under the center of
ths body. The feet as sketched here appear abnormally
large, but this is due to the fact that the figure is almost
entirely above the eye and the feet are much nearer the
point of view than any other portion.

In drawing this plate, work on it as a whole and do not
attempt to finish any portion until the entire figure is blocked

FIGURE DRAWING PLATE Vill

INTERNATIONAL CORRESPONDENCE SCHOOLS, SCRANTON, PA. — 399

Drawn hy Chas. A. Pclcifer

THE NEW YORK
PUBLIC LIBRARY

^ST-^R, LF.NOX AND
TILOF.N e-UM^TinMS

FIGURE DRAWING-PLATE IX

INTERNATIONAL CORRESPONDENCE SCHOOLS, SCRANTON, PA.— 400

Drawn by ff>r. B. Gilbert

Printed in tin t'nited States. Copyright, 1908, by International Textbook Company.
Entered at Stationers' Hall, London. All rights rest

NEW YORK
PUBLIC LIBRARY

KSTOR, LENOX AH»

ti'ldes foundations

FIGURE DRAWING-PLATE X

INTERNATIONAL CORRESPONDENCE SCHOOLS, SCRANTON, PA.— 401

Drawn hr Melvin Nichols

Printed m the United States. Copyright, 1903, by Intern ttional /'■ ttbooi ■
Entered at Stationers' Ball, Loiidon. AV rights reserved.

.STO^

.TtONB

§8 DRAWING FROM THE FIGURE 13

in. Then model with the stomp and crayon until the round-
ness of the parts is well expressed, and spray the drawing
as usual before sending it in for correction.

PLATE IX

10. The interest in this pose is centered in the head and
right arm, the muscles of. the neck giving a clear idea of the
effect of turning the head, while the muscles of the arm are
thrown into prominence by the pose of the figure. The left
shoulder appears considerably below the right owing to the
fact that the figure is seen from below. The hands are well
worthy of study, as the knuckles catch the light and form
points that must be carefully located in order to preserve
the proper construction. While the front of the body is
mainly composed of a single sweep from the neck to the
ankle, analysis of it will show that it consists of a series of
convex lines subtly joined to one another so as to mark
prominences due to muscular development. The deep
shadow on the back contrasted with the high light on the
upper arm, and the darkened hands profiled against the high
light of the hip, tend to throw the right arm into prominence
and give the figure a feeling of depth and solidity.

PLATE X

11. This plate gives an idea of the simplest form of
modeling. The hands clasped behind the back are simply
indicated, and in this position give considerable prominence
to the shoulder blades. There is no attempt at variety of
tone here, except where the high lights fall on the shoulders
and elbows. The hair is increased in tone somewhat in
order to contrast with the flesh, and a few strong lines are
placed throughout the figure in order to express the direction
of the planes. Although the hands are incomplete and
roughly blocked, their position and pose can be readily felt,
and this shows the importance of expressing details well in
mass. In the legs there is no attempt at precision of outline,
yet they are drawn in with a bold, free sweep that shows the

14 DRAWING FROM THE FIGURE §8

artist had a definite idea of points of start and arrival; the
position and direction of each line was determined before
the crayon was placed to the paper. For instance, at the
juncture of the right thigh with the abdomen a point of start
was established and the line sweeps boldly and freely to the
knee, which is the definite point of finish, or arrival; and
from here to a point above the instep another line is boldly
drawn. Similar points can be found on all the parts of the
figure, showing that the mind grasped the problem and the
hand executed the work with mutual understanding.

It will be difficult for the beginner to determine these
points of start and arrival at first, but he must not be dis-
couraged should it be necessary for him to make the attempt
a dozen or more times before striking the exact trend.
Practice and study, however, will enable him to improve
from time to time, and this method of procedure will instil
into his drawings that feeling of action that is so important
in all figure work.

PLATE XI

12. Plate XI is another example of simple modeling
where most of the figure is expressed in monotone with a
few high lights placed to give modeling and an occasional
deeper shadow to emphasize the form. Note how trans-
parent the shadow is throughout the back. There is no
feeling of deadness there, but simply of partial shade. Close
the eyes slightly, and the planes of light and shade become
very strongly marked. Study these planes of light and
shade carefully and endeavor to outline them before the
shadow tone is placed on the drawing. Be careful not to
overwork the shadow to make it too dark, and where two
shaded portions are in contact observe the placing of the
high lights in the deeper shadows in order to emphasize
the outline. For instance, where the right hand is placed in
the hollow of the back it is rendered in practically the same
tone as the back itself, but the small high light on the upper
part of the hand and the deepening shadow under the wrist,
gives it outline and permits it to contrast with the tone

FIGURE DRAWING-PLATE XI

INTERNATIONAL CORRESPONDENCE SCHOOLS. SCRANTON, PA.— 402

Drawn hv Melvin Nichols

Printed in the United States, Copyright, i903^ by TnU m ttional Textbook Company.
Entered at Stationer* Hall, London, a" right* reserved.

■ —— — — I

THE NEW York
PUBLIC LIBRARY

ASTOn., LENOX AND
TILDEN FOUNr-

FIGURE DRAWING-PLATE XII

INTERNATIONAL CORRESPONDENCE SCHOOLS, SCRANTON PA.— -103

Drawn by Chas. A. Pclcefbk

Printed in the United States. Copyright, 1908, by International r, cfl I Clomp

Entered at Stationers Ball, London. All righto reserved.

FIGURE DRAWING-PLATE XIII

INTERNATIONAL CORRESPONDENCE SCHOOLS, SCRANTON, PA. — 404

Drawn by Melvi.n Nichols

Printed in the United States. Copyright, 1903, by International Textl t Company.

Entered at Stationers' II, ill, London. All rightt reserved.

§8 DRAWING FROM THE FIGURE 15

against which it is placed. The upper side of the thumb,
however, receives no high light, and as a matter of fact
merges into the shadow of the back; but the eye feels the
presence of its outline, as also of the ends of the knuckles,
yet all that is placed here to convey that impression is the
simple shading between the fingers. The whole solidity of
this figure is based on a keen sense of light and shade and a
clear understanding of where one begins and the other ends.

PLATE XII

13. The point of interest in this figure lies in the study
of the foreshortening. The eye of the artist was about on a
level with the ankle of the model, and as the figure leans
slightly forwards, parts of it are materially foreshortened.
The left elbow becomes very prominent, while the forearm
tapers rapidly to the wrist owing to the fact that it is more
distant. The right arm is similarly drawn, the taper of the
muscles of the elbow to the wrist being even more conspic-
uous here. Note the vigorous treatment of the outlines
where a series of simple lines block out the general form.
The high light under the left arm tends to throw the left
arm into the foreground apparently and increase the effect
of foreshortening. The lines across the shoulders and hips
are at such an angle that one readily feels the height of the
figure above the eye. In rendering this figure, close atten-
tion should be given to the contrasting of high lights and
shadows as well as to the blending of subtle variations, one
into another.

PLATE XIII

14. Plate XIII shows the figure of a rather thin person,
and though the bones are well covered with muscles there is
not much prominence given to any one set, nor any devel-
opment of fat. The lines, however, remain practically the
same as those of a muscular figure, but not so prominent.
The modeling is carried out with great nicety, and the
effect of contrast between light and shade in order to give

16 DRAWING FROM THE FIGURE §8

foreshortening- in perspective is well studied. There is not
a great variety of tone here, and the simplicity with which
the effect is obtained is readily illustrated in the plane of
shadow that extends the full length of the left leg, particu-
larly the part of the leg from the knee to the ankle. The
union or intersection of this plane of shadow with the plane
of light marks the intersection with the shin bone, while the
contrast of the pale light with the deepest shadow on the
right leg gives the full contour of the left foreleg, without
individual outline. The enormous size of the left foot is
due to the fact that it is thrust well forwards and is much
nearer the eye than the rest of the figure. The careful
modeling of the hand and the deep shadow on its under side
tend to throw it well forwards of the high light on the chest;
and the muscles of the chest and abdomen, though but
slightly expressed, all make their appearance felt, although
the outlines are very elusive.

REMARKS

15. In drawing these figures for practice do not endeavor
to copy them line for line and shade for shade, but study
them with a view to learning what details must necessarily
be represented and how such details can best be represented
by means of light-and-shade values. These drawings were
made from the living model, and the copying of the draw-
ings themselves will not be of the same value as the making
of drawings from a model. Small sections of them should
be taken from time to time and drawn in crayon, using the
stomp for the modeling. The crayon may be used as a
pencil, or a portion of it may be scraped to a powder and
the stomp dipped in it and then applied to the paper.
Only the lightest and most delicate treatment should be
attempted, as hard rubbing with the stomp produces a dull
and dirty looking surface. Where a detail can be expressed
with one or two lines, it should be so drawn, and not over-
worked with more lines.

After drawing a complete figure or a portion of a figure it

§8 DRAWING FROM THE FIGURE 17

is excellent practice to attempt to redraw the same from
memory without any copy before the eye, reverting to the
copy only for such details as cannot be remembered. Train-
ing' of this character enables the mind to carry a mental idea
of what is to be represented, and is of great assistance in
drawing from life, inasmuch as after studying the pose or
figure the hand can be readily directed to execute its main
outlines without the eye constantly returning to the original.
Study from life in the draped figure is quite as important
as study from the nude, but the artist must ever bear in
mind that draped forms depend for their outline and appear-
ance on the form within, and the position of the arms and
legs will in all instances have more or less influence on the
direction and character of the folds of the drapery. In fact,
the expression of folds in drapery should be of such a
character as to convey the feeling of support and structure
within, and in drawing from the draped figure the artist
should always endeavor to mentally account for the direc-
tion and cause of every fold he depicts and not place them
at random simply because he thinks he sees them in a certain
position. Care in studying these details is important in the
training of the mind to grasp the situation quickly and enable
the hand to make a sketched memorandum in a compara-
tively short space of time.

INDEX

Note.— All items in this index refer first
section. Thus, "Atmosphere 5 28" means th
section 5.

A Sec. Page

Accessories to landscapes .... 5 61

Action, Meaning of 7 7

An Old Lime Kiln: Drawing Plate 4 52

Analytic study of the human figure 7 12

Apple tree, Drawing of 5 41

Arm in pronation, Drawing the . . 7 17

supination. Drawing the . 7 17

Arrangement of light 6 20

Artificial color 3 4

Atmosphere 5 28

Back view of the figure. Drawing

the 7 42

Balance in composition 1 8

rhythm, and harmony . . 1 7
Beardsley, Examples of work of

Aubrey 1 51

Beech tree. Drawing the 5 46

Bell, Example of work of R. Anning 1 56

Biceps and triceps, Drawing the . 7 17

of the leg 7 29

Birch tree. Drawing the -r> 52

Block Form of Head: Drawing

Plate 6 37

Hand: Drawing Plate ... 6 ">1

Blocking in 7 5

Blue and yellow in chromatic

scale. Position of 3 6

Bradley, Examples of work of Will 1 56

Breasts, Drawing the 7 16

Brush drawing 4 13

Materials used in rendering

with pen and 2 1

Work and Flowers: Draw-
ing Plate 4 13

Brushes for water-color rendering 3 8

Buildings, Drawing of 5 77

Campbell, Examples of work of W. 1 30
Cast drawing, Difference between

life and 7 1

to the section and then to the page of the
at atmosphere will be found on page 28 of

Sec.
Cast, Meaning of drawing from . . 6

Central line 7

Character, or costume, studies . . 7

Charts and colors 3

Chin, Drawing the 7

Chromatic scale, Pos

tionof blue in
colors

purple

Page

8
39

8
67

red in .
yellow

Classification of colors 3

Close modeling 7

Color, Artificial 3

Composition of perfect

green 3

Contrast in 3

diagrams . . 3

" Local 3

" Plate: Theory of Pigments 3

Positive . . 3

" Tone in 3

Colors and charts . 3

Classification of 3

Complementary 3

for water-color rendering . 3
in chromatic scale. Posi-
tion of 3

of spectrum, Formation of 3

" Primary 3

" Secondary and tertiary . . 3

Common errors of beginners ... 2

Complementary colors 3

Composition 5

Harmony in

Vll

Vlll

INDEX

Sec. Page
Composition, Importance of tex-
ture in 1 06

in a drawing, Mean-
ing of 1 6

Rhythm in 1 12

Contrast in color 3 11

Cool grays 3 9

Cover designs, Examples of . . . 1 62
Crayons and papers in figure

drawing 7 4

Decorative Designs: Drawing

Plate 2 40

Definite points, Meaning of ... . 7 7

Deltoid muscle, Drawing the ... 7 17
Details and Accessories: Drawing

Plate 2 17

of a picture 5 20

Diagrams, Color 3 12

Difference between life and cast

drawing 7 1

of technique, Explana-
tion of 1 5

Distance 5 27

and foreground 5 20

Middle 5 28

Draped Figure: Drawing Plate . . C 66

Drapery 7 70

Drawing Plate 4 19

Drawing, Brush 4 13

Crayons and papers in

figure 7 4

Difference between life

and east 7 1

from cast, Materials for 6 20

Meaning of . <i 1

nature 5 1

Light and

shade in 5 12
Materials
for .... 5 3
" Pencils for 5 3
the figure. Re-
marks on . . 8 16
human figure . 7 1

Making the 6 18

" masses of foliage .... 5 35

" Materials used in figure . 7 4
Meaning of composition

in a . . . 1 6

rendering in 1 1

of apple tree 5 41

birch tree 5 52

" " buildings 5 77

elm tree 5 43

Sec

Page

Drawing

7''

neck and shouldeis

oak trees ....

pine trees and ever-

greens

sky effects

water

weeping willow ....

Plate: An Old Lime Kiln

Block Hand . . .

Form of

Head . .

Brush Work and

Decorative De-

signs

Details and Acces-

Draped Figure . .

Drapery

Female Hand . .

Foot

Furniture

Geometrical Sol-

Introductory Ex-

ercises

Landscape ....

Outlines of . Fea-

Preliminary Pen

Practice ...

Surface Texture .

Typical Subjects .

Wash Drawings .

the arm in pronation . .

supination . .

back view of the

figure

biceps and triceps . .

breasts

" deltoid muscle ....

" features of the face .

" foliage of the elm tree

" foot

" front view of the

INDEX

Sec. Page

Drawing the mouth 7 62

" muscles of the abdo-
men 7 16

" nose 7 59

pectoral muscles . . 7 16
prostrate figure ... 7 52

radius 7 17

shoulder 7 17

side view of the figure 7 48

" thigh 7 27

three-quarter view of
the figure . . .

ulna

willow tree ....
Values in

Ear, Drawing the 7 66

Effect of the pose 7 54

Elements of water-color rendering: 3 1

Elm tree, Drawing of 5 43

the foliage of

the 5 43

Erasers 2 1

5 5

Errors of beginners, Common . . 2 3
Evergreens and pine trees, Draw-
ing of 5 56

Example of work of Bertram G.

Goodhue . 1 20

Daniel Vierge 1 34

E. H. New . 1 56

Ernst Peix-

otto .... 1 34

F r a n k A .

Hays ... 1 26

' Joseph Sattler 1 58

R.AnningBell 1 56

Examples of cover designs .... 1 62

" work 1 17

"work of Alphonse

Mucha 1 48

"work of Aubrey

Beardsley 1 51

" work of Charles

Dana Gibson ... 1 48
" work of Charles D.

Maginnis 1 24

" work of Charles Rob-
inson 1 56

" work of D. A. GregS ' 17

" work of Harry Fenn 1 26
" work of Herbert

Railton 1 42

" work of Joseph Pen-

nell 1 42

Sec. Page

Examples of work of Louis Rhead 1 51

work of Martin Rico 1 34
work of Maxime

Lalanne 1 40

" work of W.Campbell 1 30

" work of Will Bradley 1 58

Expression of foliage 5 30

Eye and the hand, Training the . . 5 6

Drawing the 7 57

Face, Drawing the features of the 7 56

Female Hand: Drawing Plate ... 6 56

Fenn, Examples of work of Harry 1 26

Field grass. Drawing of 5 60

Figure, Drawing from the human 7 1

Materials used in 7 4
the back view of

the ... . 7 42
front view of

the .... 7 40

prostrate . . 7 52
side view of

the .... 7 48
three-quarter

view of the 7 44

Laying in the 7 5

Meaning of term 7 30

Remarks on drawing from

the 8 16

Fixative 6 21

Foliage, Drawing masses of . . . 5 35

Expression of 5 30

of the elm tree, Drawing

the 5 43

Foot: Drawing Plate 6 61

the 7 37

Foreground and distance 5 20

Foreshortening, Meaning of ... 7 8

Formation of colors of spectrum . 3 5
Front view of the figure, Drawing

the 7 10

Full view of head 7 14

Furniture: Drawing Plate 4 26

Geometrical Solids: Drawing

Plate 6 21

Gibson, Examples of work of

Charles Dana 1 48

Goodhue, Example of work of

Bertram G 1 20

Gradation, Importance of 5 12

Grass, Drawing of field 5 60

Grays. Cool 3 8

Warm 3 9

INDEX

Sec.

Green color, Composition of perfect 3
in chromatic scale. Position

of 3

Gregg, Examples of work of D. A. 1

Half tone, Meaning- of 6

Hand, Drawing: the 7

Training: the 5

eye and the . . 5

Harmony 1

in composition 1

Hatching: 1

Hays, Example of work of Frank A. 1

Haze 5

Head, Full view of 7

Profile view of 7

Hig-h light 6

Hue 3

Human figure. Analytic study of

the 7

Drawing from the 7

Humerus, Drawing the 7

Importance of gradation 5

Ink , 2

Interiors: Drawing Plate 4

Introductory Exercises: Drawing

Plate 2

L
Lalanne, Examples of work of

Maxime 1

Landscape drawing. Logs and

rocks in 5

Drawing Plate .... 4

Landscapes, Accessories to ... . 5

Laying in the figure 7

Leg, Biceps of the 7

Principal muscles of the

lower 7

Life and cast drawing, Difference

between 7

Light and shade 1

in drawing from

nature 5

to color, Relation

of 3

Arrangement of 6

" High 6

" Reflected 6

Value in 3

" White 3

Limitations to movement 7

Line, Central 7

Median 7

Page

Sec. Page

Line, Rhythm of 1 13

Lines, Measurement 7 7

Local color :; 10

Location of the principal muscles

of the thigh 7 27

Logs and rocks in landscape draw-
ing 5 61

Lower leg, Principal muscles of

the 7 29

M
Maginnis, Examples of work of

Charles D 1 24

Making the drawing fi 18

Masses of foliage. Drawing .... 5 35
Materials for drawing from cast . 6 20
nature 5 3
water-color render-
ing 3 8

used in figure drawing . 7 4
in rendering with

pen and brush . 2 1

Measurement and proportion ... (5 10

lines 7 7

Unit of 7 5

Median line 7 8

Middle distance 5 28

Model, Posing the 7 1

Modeling, Close 7 5

in drawing and painting,

Meaning of 7 10

Mountains, Drawing of 5 72

Mouth, Drawing the ....'.... 7 62

Movement, Limitations to ... . 7 68
Muca, Examples of work of Al-

phonse 1 48

Muscle, Drawing the deltoid ... 7 17
Muscles. Drawing the pectoral . . 7 16
of the abdomen. Draw-
ing the 7 16

breast and abdo-
men 7 16

lower leg. Princi-
pal 7 29

" thigh, Location of

the principal . . 7 27

Nature, Drawing from 5 1

Neck and shoulders, Drawing of . 7 15

New, Example of work of E. H. . 1 56

Nose, Drawing the 7 59

Oak, Drawing of 5 36

Orange in chromatic scale. Position

of 3 7

INDEX

Sec. Page

Outfit tor outlining 2 1

Outlines of Features: Drawing

Plate 6 31

Outlining-, Outfit for 2 1

Paper 2 1

3 9

Drawing 5 4

Papers and crayons in figure draw-
ing 7 4

Pectoral muscles. Drawing the . . 7 L6
Peixotto, Example of work of

Ernst 1 34

Pen and brush, Materials used in

rendering with 2 1

Pens 2 2

Pencils for drawing from nature . 5 3
Pennell, Examples of work of

Joseph 1 42

Perfectgreen color, Composition of 3 7

Picture, Details of a 5 20

Pine trees and evergreens. Draw-
ing of 5 56

Plate I, Directions for drawing . . 8 2

II, Directions for drawing . 8 4

III, Directions for drawing . 8 6

IV, Directions for drawing . 8 7

V, Directions for drawing . . 8 8

VI, Directions for drawing . 8 10

VI I, Directions for drawing . 8 15

VIII, Directions for drawing 8 12

IX, Directions for drawing . 8 13

X, Directions for drawing . . 8 13

XI, Directions for drawing .8 11

XII, Directions for drawing . 8 11

XIII, Directions for drawing 8 15
Points, Meaning of definite .... 7 7

Pose, Effect of the 7 54

Posing the model 7 1

Position of colors in chromatic

scale 3 6

Positive color 3 10

Preliminary Pen Practice: Drawing

Plate 2 6

Primary colors 3 5

Principal muscles of the thigh, Lo-
cation of the 7 27

Profile view of head 7 12

Pronation, Drawing the arm in . . 7 17

Proportion and measurement ... <i 10

Prostrate figure. Drawing the ... 7 52
Purple in chromatic scale. Position

of 3 7

Quality in a picture 5 17

R Sec. Page

Radius, Drawing the 7 17

Railton, Examples of work of

Herbert 1 42

Red in chromatic scale. Position of 3 6

Reflected light 6 7

Reflections in drawing Irom nature 5 16
Relation of light and shade to

color 3 3

Remarks on drawing from the

figure 8 16

Rendering, Elements of water-color 3 1

in drawing. Meaning of 1 1

water color 4 1

Texture in 1 15

Textures in water-color 4 1
with pen and brush. Ma-
terials used in ... . 2 1
Rhead, Examples of work of Louis 1 51

Rhythm 1 7

in composition 1 12

of line 1 13

Rico, Examples of work of Martin 1 34
Robinson, Examples of work of

Charles 1 50

Rocks and logs in landscape draw-
ing 5 61

S
Sattler, Example of work of

Joseph 1 58

Scale of values 1 3

Position of colors in chro-
matic 3 I!

Secondary and tertiary colors ... 3 6

Shade 6 9

and light 1 1

shadow. Production of 3 4
Relation of light and. to

color 3 3

Shadow G 9

" Production ot shade and 3 4

Shoulder, Drawing the 7 17

Shoulders and neck. Drawing of . 7 15
Side view of the figure. Drawing

the 7 48

Sketching, Definition of 1 13

Sky effects. Drawing of 5 69

line 5 27

Spectrum 3 5

Formation of colors of 3 5

Sprayer 6 21

Stomp 5 i.i

Stomps 7 4

Studies, Character, or costume . . 7 39

Supination, Drawing the arm in . . 7 17

Surface Texture: Drawing Plate . 4 G

Xll

INDEX

T Sec.
Technique, Explanation of differ-
ence of 1

Tertiary colors, Secondary and . . 3

Texture 6

in composition, Impor-
tance of 1

" rendering 1

Textures 1

in water-color rendering 4

Theory of Pigments: Color Plate . 3

Thigh, Drawing the 7

Three-quarter view of the figure,

Drawing the 7

Tints 3

Tone in color 3

Training the eye and the hand . . 5

Tree, Drawing of apple 5

" birch 5

" elm 5

" the beech 5

" foliage of the

elm 5

" willow 5

Trees as an accessory in land-
scape work 5

Typical Subjects: Drawing Plate . 2

Page

6
4

66
15
15

1
17

44
9

9
6
41
52
43
46

30
34

U Sec. Page

Ulna, Drawing the 7 17

Unit of measurement 7 5

Value in light 3 10

Meaning of 6 2

Values in drawing . . 1 2

Scale of 1 3

Vierge, Example of work of

Daniel 1 34

Warm grays 3 9

Wash Drawings: Drawing Plate . 2 45

Water-color rendering, Brushes for 3 8

Colors for . 3 8

Elements of 3 1

in 4 1

Materials

for ... . 3 8

Drawing of 5 65

Weeping willow, Drawing of ... 5 51

White light 3 4

Willow tree, Drawing the 5 47

Yellow in chromatic scale, Posi-
tion of 3 6

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